WSIPP Publications Feed

Evaluation Plan for the Offender Accountability Act

The 1999 Washington Legislature passed E2SSB 5421, the Offender Accountability Act, reforming the way adult criminals, under the jurisdiction of the state, are supervised in the community. The legislation directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to carry out an evaluation of the Act. The Institute presented the design of the evaluation to the Legislature in January 2000. This report describes the research design the Institute intends to follow during the course of the evaluation of the Offender Accountability Act.

Survey Responses From Washington State's Principals and Beginning Teachers: A Chartbook

In 1998, the Institute studied the preparation and development of teachers in Washington State at the request of its Board of Directors. A report was published by the Institute in August 1999, Teacher Preparation and Development . The study included surveys of beginning teachers and principals. Due to space limitations, not all the data from the surveys and from the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction’s (OSPI) certification and employment data base were available in the report. This chartbook provides additional insights from the Institute’s study. The link to the appendix above provides a copy of the survey and a summary of survey responses.

Population Description: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #1

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature funded intensive parole for youth placed under the supervision of the state’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA). This legislation targets 25 percent of the JRA population at the highest risk for reoffending. JRA contracted with the Institute to evaluate the program, determine whether it reduces recidivism, and analyze the costs and benefits to taxpayers and crime victims.

Supervision Status: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #2

This briefing paper looks at intensive parole program youth and answers the following questions: (1) Are intensive parole youth completing their parole supervision within 24 weeks of placement on the supervision? (2) Can we compare the status of these intensive parole youth with the status of youth in a control group? and (3) How does intensive parole affect the likelihood that youth will experience supervision difficulties?

Parole Revocations: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #3

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature funded intensive parole for youth under the supervision of the state’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA). This legislation targets 25 percent of the JRA population at the highest risk for re-offending. The goals of the intensive parole program include maintaining public protection in both the short-term and long-term; assuring individual accountability; and providing treatment and support services. JRA's method for achieving these goals is through an overarching case management system intended to help high-risk delinquents make the transition from secure confinement to community supervision.

This briefing paper looks at intensive parole program youth and answers the following questions about parole revocations: How often do intensive parole youth have their parole revoked? How does intensive parole affect parole revocations?

Unauthorized Leaves: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #4

This briefing paper looks at intensive parole program youth and answers the following questions about unauthorized leaves: (1) How often do intensive parole youth go on unauthorized leave? and (2) How does intensive parole affect unauthorized leaves?

Evaluating WorkFirst: Analyses of Cost-Effectiveness, Barriers to Employment, and Job Search Services

This study examines three questions about the Washington State WorkFirst program: Is TANF cost-effective, are WorkFirst clients becoming harder to employ, and does participating in WorkFirst Job Search improve employment outcomes? The analyses support the following conclusions: 1) When compared with AFDC, the government spends more per TANF household. Under TANF, however, fewer clients use welfare, and overall welfare costs are less. 2) According to four specific factors that impact employment, clients on the caseload in February 2000 were no harder to employ than clients on the caseload when WorkFirst began in August 1997. 3) For those with no recent work experience, job search increases employment rates. Results for clients with a recent work history are mixed. WorkFirst replaced AFDC as the state’s welfare program in 1997.

Assessing the Impact of Washington's Truancy Petition Process: An Exploratory Analysis of the Seattle School District

At the request of its Board of Directors, the Institute studied the impact of the truancy petition process in the Seattle School District. Revised truancy procedures in Washington State school districts took effect in 1995 as part of the “Becca Bill.” The truancy component of this bill requires school districts to file a petition in juvenile court when students accumulate excessive unexcused absences. This paper describes whether the truancy requirements work to keep truant youth (from the Seattle School District) enrolled in school.

Intensive Parole Model for High Risk Juvenile Offenders: Interim Outcomes for the First Cohort of Youth

JRA contracted with the Institute to evaluate the program's implementation, determine whether it reduces recidivism, and analyze its costs and benefits to taxpayers and crime victims. To determine whether intensive parole reduces recidivism, the Institute compared intensive parole youth with a similar group of youth who did not receive intensive parole.

The Washington Professional Educator Standards Board: Scope of Authority and Governance

In 2000, the Washington State Legislature created the Washington Professional Educator Standards Board (PESB) to oversee new teacher assessments, recommend alternative methods of certification, and advise on issues pertaining to preparation and professional development of educators. This report examines scope of authority and governance options for Washington’s PESB through studying models for tapping the expertise of educators from all 50 states and eight case study states.

Medicaid Expansion for Employed Persons With Disabilities: Costs and Benefits of the "Ticket to Work" Buy-In

The federal Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 is intended to increase employment opportunities for persons with disabilities, focusing on individuals participating in the two federal income assistance programs: Social Security Disability Insurance and Supplemental Security Income. A key provision of the Ticket to Work law gives states the option of expanding Medicaid coverage to employed persons with severe disabilities. The Medicaid expansion, often referred to as a “buy-in,” represents a major change in access to health care for persons with severe disabilities by greatly increasing the income and asset thresholds for Medicaid eligibility. This report, undertaken at legislative request, examines the impacts of implementing the optional Medicaid buy-in provision of the Ticket to Work law.

High-Cost Medicaid Clients: Targeting Diseases for Case Management

The rapid growth of Washington State’s health care expenditures has renewed efforts to contain the state’s health care costs. Of particular interest is the potential to reduce expenditures and improve health outcomes for low-income Medicaid recipients with disabilities or who are over age 65. This paper proposes an approach that uses medical claims data to identify high-cost Medicaid beneficiaries and provide them with case management services to help improve their health status and contain their medical costs.

Sentencing Reform in the Other Washington

Lessons from Washington State's sentencing reform in the early 1980s are summarized in this 2001 article.

How Much Money Does Washington State Government Spend On Prevention Programs for Youth?

Prevention programs are often though of as investments in the future; that is, spending money today on successful prevention programs can produce taxpayer and other savings for years into the future. Just as any investor might examine the content of his or her portfolio from time to time, this study provides a snapshot of the total amount of prevention-related spending by Washington State Government during the 1999-2001 biennium. Programs that address at-risk youth behaviors are the focus of this spending account.

Educational Opportunities in Washington's High Schools Under State Education Reform: Background and Student Outcomes

This interim report, presented to the Legislature in January 2001, provides background for the study with a special emphasis on current data available for high school student outcomes and performance in Washington. National and state trends in education reform are also examined.

Welfare Caseload Trends in Washington State, 1997-2000: Analysis of Long-Term Welfare Use and the Approaching Time Limits

This report looks at the three-year history of the state's welfare reform program, WorkFirst, and assesses some of the key issues facing welfare reform in the coming years. One of the foremost issues is the 5-year time limit on welfare benefits, which will take effect in Washington State beginning August 2002. Approximately 7,600 individuals on WorkFirst may reach the 5-year time limit between 2002 and 2003. This study describes these high risk cases, outlines the factors that increase the likelihood of remaining on welfare, and follows program participation of long-term recipients.

Purchasing State Employee Health Benefits: An Overview and Options for Change

This report examines the bidding process used by the Public Employee Benefits Board to purchase state employee health benefits from managed care organizations. Three options having the potential to improve decision-making and reduce costs are identified: 1) requiring the bidding process to occur before the biennial budget is passed; 2) limiting the number of accepted bids in a geographic area; and 3) requesting annual and multi-year bids.

Evaluation of the HOPE Act: New State Services for Street Youth: Interim Report

The 1999 Legislature requested the Institute to review the effectiveness of HOPE Centers and Responsible Living Skills Programs (RLSPs), two new state services for street youth. This interim report describes the legislative intent in creating these services, provides an implementation update, and summarizes preliminary findings regarding characteristics of the youth served and services provided.

Strategic Directions for the Washington State Library

The 2000 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy "to study the mission, programs, and usage of the state library." This study focused on three key questions related to this direction: 1) Are there options for redefining the roles and functions of the Washington State Library (WSL)? 2) What value can the WSL add to the delivery of information to the legislature and state government agencies? 3) Is the current location of the WSL on the capitol campus essential to its effective operation? Results of interviews, focus group meetings, and a survey of state government users are incorporated into the final recommendations.

Child Sexual Abuse Investigations: Testing Documentation Methods

The 1999 Legislature directed the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) to establish three pilot projects involving child sexual abuse investigations. The Child Protective Services (CPS) offices were to use written protocols and test different methods and techniques to conduct and preserve interviews with alleged victims of child sexual abuse. This report examines the quality, feasibility, utility of interview techniques in each pilot site.

Children in Long-Term Foster Care in Washington: Preliminary Findings

The 2000 Legislature directed the Institute to compare placement decisions and funding methodologies for residential care services for children in long-term foster care and to examine the best practices in other states (EHB 2487). This report addresses the state’s funding methodologies. A separate report covers innovative practices and a literature review.

Placement Decisions for Children in Long-Term Foster Care: Innovative Practices and Literature Review

The 2000 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to examine best practices in other states regarding placement decisions for children in long-term foster care (EHB 2487 §607 (5)). The following topics are covered in this report: 1) Placement decision-making; 2) Research findings of children in foster care; and 3) Innovative practices in other states.

Encouraging Adoption of Children in Foster Care: Trends in Washington's Financial Assistance Program

Washington State’s Adoption Support Program encourages families to adopt children from the child welfare system who, because of age, race, physical condition, or emotional health, are considered difficult to place. The program was established by the 1971 Legislature and is intended to remove financial barriers to adoption. Adoption assistance includes help with legal costs, fees for adoption, ongoing monthly maintenance for adopted children with special needs, medical coverage, counseling reimbursements, and training opportunities for adoptive parents. The 2000 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to review the Adoption Support Program (EHB 2487 §607 (5)).

Forecasting Fishing and Hunting License Revenue

The Department of Fish and Wildlife (DFW) contracted with the Institute to develop models and procedures to forecast revenue from the sale of hunting and fishing licenses. This report describes (1) current impediments to developing detailed revenue forecast models, (2) short-term strategies for forecasting license revenues, and (3) suggestions for improving forecast methodology as more information becomes available.

The Effects of Parole on Recidivism: Juvenile Offenders Released from Washington State Institutions. Preliminary Findings.

For a one-year period, the 1997 Legislature eliminated Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) parole for all but sex offenders and the highest-risk offenders leaving JRA institutions. Subsequently, the 1999 Legislature reinstated parole for all offenders leaving those institutions. In order to determine whether parole services influenced subsequent criminal conduct, the Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to compare outcomes of youth with and without parole. The Institute compared the recidivism rates of those juveniles released without parole in fiscal year 1999 to a similar group released with parole during the previous year.

Residential Phase Intensive Parole Contact Standards: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #6

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature funded intensive parole for youth under the supervision of the state’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA). This legislation targets 25 percent of the JRA population at the highest risk for re-offending. The goals of the intensive parole program include maintaining public protection in both the short-term and long-term; assuring individual accountability; and providing treatment and support services. JRA's method for achieving these goals is through an overarching case management system intended to help high-risk delinquents make the transition from secure confinement to community supervision.

This briefing paper looks at intensive parole program youth and answers the following questions about parole revocations: How are intensive parole youth being contacted while residing in a JRA facility? How are the intensive parole residential phase contact standards being met?

The Comparative Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime, v 4.0

This report describes the Institute's latest analysis of the costs and benefits of crime prevention and intervention programs. It contains a summary of the findings as well as a detailed technical discussion of the model used to estimate costs and benefits.

An Assessment of WorkFirst Post-Employment Services

This study examines the impact of Post-employment services provided by the Washington State WorkFirst program. Post-employment services are intended to help employed WorkFirst clients stay employed and find better paying jobs. The analysis shows that clients who receive Post-employment services have higher rates of employment, earn more, and work more hours than similar clients who did not receive those services. The study also evaluates the impact of more intensive Post-employment services provided in the Spokane area and examines the costs associated with supporting employed clients.

Long-Term Foster Care in Washington: Children's Status and Placement Decision-Making

The 2000 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to compare placement decisions and funding methodologies for residential care services for children in long-term foster care and to examine the best practices in other states (EHB 2487). This report finds that initial placement decisions that correspond to the level of difficulties faced by a foster child and ongoing supports appropriate to the needs of the foster family are two steps that may improve the continuity of foster care placements and lead to positive outcomes for youth in foster care.

Intensive Parole Supervision Assessment: JRA Intensive Parole Evaluation, Briefing Paper #7

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature funded intensive parole for youth under the supervision of the state’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA). This legislation targets 25 percent of the JRA population at the highest risk for re-offending. The goals of the intensive parole program include maintaining public protection in both the short-term and long-term; assuring individual accountability; and providing treatment and support services. JRA's method for achieving these goals is through an overarching case management system intended to help high-risk delinquents make the transition from secure confinement to community supervision.

What value does the Intensive Parole Supervision Assessment (IPSA) have for JRA? How does the IPSA relate to JRA’s two additional risk instruments: the Initial Security Classification assessment and the Community Risk Assessment? How should we use the IPSA to measure progress on parole? How does the IPSA change between the initial assessment and the final assessment at the end of intensive parole?

Educational Opportunities in Washington's High Schools Under State Education Reform: High School Responses to Expectations for Change

This report, presented to the Legislature in September 2001, relies on analysis of a statewide survey of public high schools and visits to eight case study schools. The following questions are addressed in the final report:

1) Are High Schools Increasing the Rigor of What Students Learn?
2) Are High Schools Making Learning More Relevant for Students?
3) Are High Schools Providing Learning Options for 11th and 12th Grades?

Educational Opportunities in Washington's High Schools Under State Education Reform: Case Studies of Eight Washington High Schools

The Institute selected eight high schools as case studies to examine state education reform: Pasco, Moses Lake, Sunnyside, Nathan Hale (Seattle), Sequim, Nooksack Valley, Mark Morris (Longview), and Lake Roosevelt (Grand Coulee Dam). This report presents summaries of interviews with principals, teachers, students, and parents from the case study schools conducted during the 2000-2001 school year.

Foundations for Learning: Safe and Civil Schools Project: Summary of Evaluation Findings

The 1999 Washington State Legislature directed the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) to address disruptive behavior by students. Using a $2 million appropriation, OSPI implemented the Foundations for Learning: Safe and Civil Schools Project to promote a positive instructional approach to school discipline by building collaborative school teams though a training process. Schools had to apply for project participation through Safe and Drug Free Schools Program. The project, funded for two years, included 123 schools: 19 high schools, 26 middle schools, and 78 elementary schools.

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was asked by OSPI to evaluate the Foundations Project. The preliminary evaluation is encouraging since the teacher surveys show some positive improvements after the first year of the planned three-year implementation effort. News from the research community is also encouraging. Researchers are having success in finding programs shown to change school environments and student behaviors. Schools can be more confident in implementing a research-based school-wide initiative to develop effective discipline practices and school norms, and then adding programs within that environment to target specific behaviors, such as bullying, or programs that focus on specific at-risk student groups.

Full-Time Higher Education Under TANF: Other States' Practices and Policy Options for Washington

In the spring of 2001, the Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to recommend how Washington could consider adding a targeted, stand-alone higher education component to the WorkFirst program in a way that is cost-neutral and consistent with the WorkFirst philosophy. This report examines other states’ practices, federal TANF regulations, and research regarding welfare and higher education.

Avoidable Hospitalizations in Washington State

With the continued growth in state health care expenditures, interest in cost containment remains high. This report identifies one area where expenditure reductions may be possible: avoidable hospitalizations. Initial research indicates that potentially unnecessary hospitalizations in Washington are an issue for the federal Medicare program, private insurers, and for the state's Medicaid program. Based on the findings in this paper, the Institute will undertake a more comprehensive examination of avoidable hospitalizations for Medicaid recipients.

Educational Attainment of Foster Youth: Achievement and Graduation Outcomes for Children in State Care

Over 12,000 school-age children in Washington State lived in foster care sometime during the past 12 months because of abuse, neglect, abandonment, or family conflict. While the health and safety of these children are of primary concern, the educational attainment of foster children will also greatly impact their ability to succeed as adults. This study finds that at both the elementary and secondary levels, the educational attainment of foster students in Washington falls significantly behind other students. Furthermore, foster students are likely to experience additional risk factors related to poor school outcomes. As directed by the Legislature, this study also suggests alternatives for sharing information about the educational experiences of foster students.

For an updated analysis on the educational attainment of foster youth using the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL), see this March 2008 report.

Missing Children in Washington State: Information Sharing and Public Education

The 1999 Legislature directed the Institute for Public Policy to review the procedures established by the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) to report missing children to the Missing Children Clearinghouse (MCC) and any impediments to effective utilization of those procedures. This report also describes the operation of the MCC and reviews public education and public awareness regarding missing children.

At-Risk and Runaway Youth in Washington State: Outcomes for Youth Admitted to Secure Crisis Residential Centers and Mandatory Chemical Dependency Treatment

In 1995, Washington State implemented policies for at-risk youth intended to protect children and help families reconcile. Known as the "Becca Bill," the policies include court intervention for at-risk youth and provisions for mandatory treatment of youth with chemical dependency problems. The bill established secure crisis residential centers (CRCs), which prevent youth from leaving CRCs without parent or staff permission. During their stays in secure CRCs, youth and their families are referred to counseling and treatment services. The 2000 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to examine outcomes for Becca youth.

Washington's Offender Accountability Act: An Evaluation of the Department of Corrections' Risk Management Identification System

In 1999, the Legislature passed the Offender Accountability Act (OAA). Fundamentally, the OAA concerns economics; that is, it affects how the Washington Department of Corrections (DOC) spends its budget. It directs DOC to focus more resources on higher-risk offenders and - because state agency budgets must balance - to spend fewer dollars on lower-risk offenders. The Institute was directed by the Legislature to “conduct a study of the effect of the use of community custody…on recidivism and other outcomes.” In this report, we evaluate the implementation of one cornerstone of the OAA: the formal process DOC is using to assess the risk levels of offenders - DOC’s “Risk Management Identification” (RMI) system. This report tests the degree to which the RMI system measures what the Legislature intended. We analyzed the first substantial group of offenders classified by DOC. We found that DOC’s RMI system does a reasonable job of classifying offenders pursuant to the policy directives of the OAA.

Access to Atypical Antipsychotic Medications: Program Characteristics and Participant Profiles

The 2000 Legislature passed Second Substitute House Bill 2663, providing for the distribution of atypical antipsychotic medications to underserved populations who present a risk of harm to themselves and the community. This interim report provides descriptive statistics on the programs, the participants, and preliminary access and funding results.

Implementation of Washington's Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Law: Preliminary Findings

In 1999, the Washington State Legislature enacted Substitute Senate Bill 5011 to improve the process of identifying and providing additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders being released from the Department of Corrections who pose a threat to public safety. This report focuses on the implementation of the Act and includes an assessment of how the process of defining, identifying, and selecting "dangerous mentally ill offenders" (DMIOs) has been carried out. The report also describes the treatment and services provided to an early group of released DMIOs.

Evaluation of the HOPE Act: New State Services for Street Youth: Second Interim Report, First Two Program Years

In 1999, the Legislature created two new programs for street youth with no family support: HOPE Centers and Responsible Living Skills Programs. This second interim report focuses on program implementation issues, characteristics of youth served, and services provided during the first two program years. It also previews the final report to be delivered by December 2002.

Washington State's Implementation of Aggression Replacement Training for Juvenile Offenders: Preliminary Findings

The 1996 Washington State Legislature appropriated $2.35 million to 12 juvenile courts for early intervention programs targeting youth placed on probation for the first time and considered at high risk to re-offend. At the request of the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy evaluated the program. The primary outcome measure is whether there is a reduction in subsequent court adjudications for youth in the program. This report also examines the level of program success necessary for the state's investment to be cost-effective.

The Learning Assistance Program: Options to Revise the State Funding Formula

The 2001 Legislature directed the Institute to examine options for revising the state's funding formula for the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The report examines how state and federal dollars to assist struggling students (through state LAP and federal Title I programs) are allocated and spent by school districts. It also analyzes the relationship between LAP, Title I, and student performance as measured by state test scores. Three sample alternative funding formulas for LAP are offered for consideration.

Washington School for the Deaf: Models of Education and Service Delivery

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to examine educational delivery models for the Washington School for the Deaf. This report covers issues influencing deaf education; characteristics of deaf and hard of hearing students in Washington; current models of providing education and services for deaf and hard of hearing students, including a comparison of models based on learning environment and cost; and possible alternative roles for WSD in education and service delivery. A literature review written by Susan Easterbrooks of Georgia State University is available above as an appendix. A companion study by the Joint Legislative Audit and Review Committee is available at the JLARC website: http://www.leg.wa.gov/JLARC/AuditAndStudyReports/2002/Pages/02-8.aspx.

Smoking Cessation and Medicaid Expenditures: A Cost-Benefit Analysis

Tobacco use is a major cause of preventable illness and death. In Washington State, nearly one-third of low-income adults, many of whom receive of state-funded medical care, are smokers. To assess the feasibility of offering smoking cessation services through state medical assistance programs, this report examines the potential costs and benefits of providing such services to adults enrolled in the state’s Medicaid program.

Kinship Care in Washington State: Prevalence, Policy, and Needs

Kinship care is the full-time care of children by relatives, either informally (without the involvement of public child welfare agencies) or formally (when public child welfare agencies are involved in placing children with relatives). An estimated 32,000 children, or one out of 50 children in Washington State, are in kinship care. Based on surveys and interviews of relative caregivers and the experiences of other states, this report describes the prevalence, challenges, and needs of kinship caregivers in Washington State and provides policy options to address those needs. Also available are two technical appendices providing detail on the challenges and needs of kinship caregivers: (1) Kinship Care Needs Assessment: Focus Group Results. Prepared by the Social and Economic Sciences Research Center, Washington State University. (2) Washington State Relative Caregivers Survey: Final Analysis.

The 1997 Revisions to Washington's Juvenile Offender Sentencing Laws: An Evaluation of the Effect of Local Detention on Crime Rates

The Washington Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the changes made during the 1997 session to the state's juvenile sentencing laws. One policy change in 1997 gave juvenile court judges more discretion to use county detention facilities for juvenile offenders not sentenced to the state. This report examines whether the use of detention affects juvenile crime rates. Cost-benefit estimates are also provided.

Preliminary Findings for the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration’s Mentoring Program

This report presents preliminary recidivism information on a mentoring program run by Washington State's Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration in the Seattle area.

Preliminary Findings for the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Dialectic Behavioral Therapy Program

This report presents preliminary recidivism information on Dialectic Behavior Therapy, a program run by Washington State's Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration. The program features comprehensive cognitive-behavioral treatment for individuals with complex and difficult-to-treat mental disorders.

Washington State's Implementation of Functional Family Therapy for Juvenile Offenders: Preliminary Findings

The 1997 Washington State Legislature established a process to implement "research based" programs in Washington State's juvenile courts. The legislature has subsequently funded four specific programs. The state Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration oversees the funding process and provides statewide training to ensure faithful adherence to each program's design. The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed to evaluate the programs. This report briefly describes preliminary results (12-month follow-up period) for one of the programs, Functional Family Therapy (FFT). When the FFT model is delivered competently, the program reduces felony recidivism and saves more money than it costs. The key to cost-effectiveness, however, is an accurate means to distinguish between competent and incompetent therapists, and the report makes recommendations on this finding.

Avoidable Hospitalizations Among Medicaid Recipients in Washington State

Physicians and researchers have identified several diseases and health conditions for which timely and effective outpatient health care services, such as physician office visits, can often prevent hospitalizations. This study examines whether these “avoidable hospitalizations” are a significant issue for the Washington State Medicaid program and, if so, whether it is possible to reduce them and in turn reduce state health care expenditures.

The Juvenile Justice System in Washington State: Recommendations to Improve Cost-Effectiveness

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to: a) conduct a comprehensive review of the costs and benefits of existing juvenile crime prevention and intervention programs; b) consider what changes could result in more cost-effective and efficient funding for juvenile crime prevention and intervention programs presently supported with state funds; and c) report findings and recommendations to legislative fiscal and policy committees. This report is the 8-page summary of the study and contains recommendations that we believe can lead to an improved use of scarce juvenile justice resources in Washington.

Keeping Kids in School: The Impact of the Truancy Provisions in Washington's 1995 "Becca Bill"

In 1995, the Washington Legislature passed a law known as the “Becca Bill.” The Becca Bill addresses several areas of public policy, including those affecting at-risk, runaway, and truant youth. This report describes the Institute’s latest evaluation of the truancy provisions in the Becca Bill. In passing the bill, the Legislature recognized that truancy is linked to poor academic performance, dropping out of school, substance abuse, and criminal behavior. The legislative intent is to keep kids in school and thereby avoid some of the undesirable outcomes associated with truancy. This report analyzes whether the truancy provisions of the Becca Bill have had an effect on one of the main goals of the Act: keeping kids in school.

Evaluating How Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Intensive Parole Program Affects Recidivism

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature funded intensive parole for the highest-risk youth committed to the state’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration. The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was asked to determine whether this strategy reduces recidivism. The findings are that the first two cohorts of youth in the program have the same recidivism rates as a control group of comparable youth. The conclusion is that the anticipated reductions in recidivism, due to intensive parole, have not been observed.

Higher Education Coordination in Washington State

The 2002 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to review the mission and operations of the HECB and evaluate its role and practices in policy setting, evaluation, review, and approval of higher education programs and budgets and administration of financial aid programs. This report is divided into two parts. Part I examines stakeholders' views regarding the role and functioning of the HECB. The in-person and telephone interviews focused on the statutory roles of the HECB and on the external and internal factors that influence the agency's effectiveness. Part II describes the evolution of higher education coordination in Washington State and the current role and authority of the HECB. It also examines governance options from other states and an emerging approach to coordinating higher education.

Higher Education Branch Campuses in Washington State: Interim Report

The 1989 Washington State Legislature created two University of Washington branch campuses (in Tacoma and Bothell) and three Washington State University branches (in Vancouver, Tri-Cities, and Spokane). This interim report reviews the mission of branch campuses and key factors that led to their creation, including access to higher education and regional economic development. Appendices for this report are linked separately.

Alternative Routes to Teacher Certification in Washington State: 2002 Interim Report

In 2001, the Legislature adopted the recommendations of the Professional Educator Standards Board (PESB) and created three alternative routes to certification for prospective teachers in Washington. The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) was directed by the 2001 Legislature to evaluate three pilot certification programs selected by the PESB. The Institute also received funding from the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction to incorporate four federally funded "Transitions to Teaching" programs in this same evaluation. This interim report addresses the following research questions: 1) What are alternative routes to teacher certification? 2) What is the status of Washington's alternative route partnerships? 3) Who are Washington's alternative route interns?

Evaluation of the HOPE Act: Services for Street Youth

In 1999, the Washington State Legislature passed the HOPE Act, establishing two new service programs for street youth who have no family support or for whom foster placements have not been successful. The Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate HOPE Act programs. This third and final Institute report on the HOPE Act describes the characteristics of youth served, services provided, and outcomes of participation. The evaluation is based on data collected between March 2000 and June 2002 as well as interviews with program staff, regional administrators, youth, and parents.

Drug-Affected Infants in Washington State: Services for Pregnant, Postpartum, and Parenting Women

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to “evaluate outcomes across state health and social service pilot projects and other national models involving women who have given birth to a drug-affected infant, comparing gains in positive birth outcomes for resources invested…” (Chapter 7, Section 608, Laws of 2001). This report addresses this legislation and examines five questions: (1) What is the risk of prenatal substance abuse? (2) How are key programs structured? (3) What positive birth outcomes are associated with specialized treatment programs? (4) What are the costs associated with achieving positive birth outcomes? and (5) What programs are most effective at achieving positive birth outcomes?

Joined-up worrying: the Multi-Agency Public Protection Panels

This chapter describes the approach used in the United Kingdom to assess and monitor released sex offenders in the community. The chapter was originally published in Sex Offenders in the Community: Managing and reducing the risks. (2003) Amanda Matravers, Ed. Cullompton, English: Willan, pp. 207-232.

Washington's Offender Accountability Act: Update and Progress Report on the Act's Evaluation

In 1999, the Washington Legislature passed, and Governor Locke signed into law, the Offender Accountability Act (OAA). The Act primarily affects how the Department of Corrections (DOC) provides community supervision to adults convicted of felony crimes. The OAA directs DOC to classify all felony offenders according to the risk they pose to re-offending in the future and the amount of harm they have caused society in the past. The OAA then directs DOC to allocate more of its community-based resources to the higher-risk offenders. The primary goal is to reduce the subsequent criminal behavior of these offenders when they are back in the community. In this report, we present the first information on how well DOC’s risk assessment tool—the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R)—predicts actual recidivism. We also describe some of the technical statistical steps we are taking to ensure that the OAA’s outcomes can be reliably evaluated.

The Criminal Justice System in Washington State: Incarceration Rates, Taxpayer Costs, Crime Rates, and Prison Economics

This report reviews basic information on Washington’s criminal justice system and the level of crime in the state. The purpose is to provide policymakers with a “big picture” summary of long-term trends and relationships.

Changes in Washington State's Jurisdiction of Juvenile Offenders: Examining the Impact

The 1994 Violence Reduction Act transferred jurisdiction of 16- and 17-year-old youth charged with certain violent felonies from juvenile to adult court. The 1997 Legislature revised the juvenile sentencing system and expanded the crimes that automatically transfer juvenile cases to adult court. The 1997 legislation also directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to “examine the impact and effectiveness of changes made in the exclusive original jurisdiction of juvenile court over juvenile offenders.” This report analyzes the law’s impact and effectiveness by comparing similar cases filed before and after the law’s enactment. Because of inaccuracies in the state administrative databases, this report cannot be considered an audit of practice.

Washington State's Drug Courts for Adult Defendants: Outcome Evaluation and Cost-Benefit Analysis

The 2002 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to “report on the cost-effectiveness of existing drug courts in Washington and their impacts on reducing recidivism.” Developed during the 1990s, drug courts use frequent courtroom activity and drug treatment resources in an attempt to modify the criminal behavior of certain drug-involved defendants. The questions for this evaluation are whether drug courts—when compared with regular criminal courts—reduce recidivism and produce more benefits than costs. We found that five of the six adult drug courts we evaluated appear to be cost-beneficial additions to Washington’s criminal justice system. The Institute’s report is contained in two documents: a 12-page report and a technical appendix. A separate executive summary is also provided.

Cost and Utilization of Outpatient Medicaid Health Care Services by Persons With Severe Disabilities

Although persons with severe disabilities comprise about 15 percent of individuals receiving Medicaid services in Washington, they account for about 27 percent of all Medicaid expenditures. A major component of these expenditures is for outpatient services, such as prescription drugs and physician office visits. In this report, we focus on three key factors: i) change in price; ii) change in utilization; and iii) change in caseload size, to explain why expenditures on outpatient services provided to Medicaid recipients with severe disabilities have increased between 1999 and 2001.

Medicaid Coverage for Persons With Severe Disabilities: Caseload Composition and Growth

The caseload for the Medicaid program providing health care services to persons with severe disabilities has been growing faster than the overall population in Washington State. This report examines factors that may contribute to caseload growth in this program and the characteristics of individuals who qualify for Medicaid on the basis of a severe disability. Some of the key findings are that the number of individuals qualifying for Supplemental Security Income (SSI) due to mental disorders is growing faster than the overall SSI caseload and that likely contributors to caseload growth include changes in the mix of occupations and industries in Washington, the rising value of Medicaid benefits, and the declining numbers of nursing home beds in the state.

Washington State's Community Commitment Program: Recidivism Findings

Evaluation of Washington's 1996 Juvenile Court Program (Early Intervention Program) for High-risk, First-time Offenders: Final Report

The 1996 Washington State Legislature appropriated $2.35 million for a program called the juvenile court “Early Intervention Program” (EIP). The program’s goal was to prevent high-risk, first-time juvenile offenders from becoming further entrenched in the court system. Funds were awarded to 12 juvenile courts for the 1996 biennium on a competitive basis. At the request of the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) conducted a study to determine if the EIP resulted in reduced recidivism. In early 1998, the Institute examined six-month outcomes and found that EIP produced no significant difference in recidivism rates. In the 1998 session, the Legislature discontinued funding the EIP, shifting the funds to research-based programs in Washington’s newly enacted Community Juvenile Accountability Act. This report confirms the Institute’s earlier findings that the Early Intervention Program did not show a statistically significant reduction in recidivism.

Washington's Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Law: Program Selection and Services, Interim Report

In 1999, the Washington State Legislature enacted Substitute Senate Bill 5011, which mandates improving the process of identifying and providing additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders being released from the Department of Corrections (DOC) who pose a threat to public safety. This interim report describes the ongoing process of identifying and selecting “dangerous mentally ill offenders” (DMIOs); provides a profile of DMIOs; and documents the type of pre- and post-release services, treatment, and supervision received by DMIOs. Finally, it focuses on program improvements that have been accomplished and summarizes continuing program challenges.

Identifying Future High-Cost Cases Among Medicaid Recipients With a Severe Disability in Washington State

The ability to identify Medicaid recipients who will have high health care expenses in the future is important for targeting cost containment efforts such as coordination of medical care, patient education, and other “case management” techniques. This report examines two approaches to identifying future high-cost clients among Medicaid recipients with severe disabilities. The results indicate that over 60 percent of next year’s high-cost clients can be accurately identified from current year data.

After Hendricks: Defining Constitutional Treatment for Washington State's Civil Commitment Program

Washington State's law for sexually violent predators was enacted in 1990; since then, 14 other states have passed similar laws authorizing civil commitment for dangerous sexual offenders following their prison terms. Although the law has survived constitutional challenges at both the state and in the U.S. Supreme Court, a related set of court actions has addressed whether the treatment program is adequate. In 1994, the federal district court placed Washington's program under injunction and appointed a special master to ensure that the state improve deficiencies in the program. As of 2003, the federal court continues to oversee the state's program, with a threat of fines totaling several million dollars if the injunction terms are not met. Over an eight-year period, the special master delivered 19 reports to the court, documenting the program's deficiencies as well as its successes in meeting the court's orders. This article reviews these reports and court orders, detailing the court's requirements for an adequate treatment program.

Higher Education Branch Campuses in Washington State

The interim report on branch campuses concluded that Washington's five upper division branch campuses are operating as intended by the 1989 Legislature. There are, however, internal and external pressures for branch campuses to evolve into more traditional, four-year research universities. This final report describes those pressures and identifies potential courses of action to guide the campuses' future development. Costs associated with Washington's branch campuses are also analyzed.

Six-Year Follow-Up of Released Sex Offenders Recommended for Commitment Under Washington's Sexually Violent Predator Law, Where No Petition Was Filed

Washington was the first state to pass a civil commitment law for violent sex offenders; the law was part of the state's 1990 Community Protection Act. The Sexually Violent Predator statute permits the indefinite involuntary civil commitment of persons found in civil court to be sexually violent predators. This study examines the recidivism of 89 sex offenders released between July 1990 and July 1996 who were referred by the Department of Corrections as meeting the filing standards for civil commitment petitions, but for whom no petitions were filed. The study reveals that this group of individuals have a high pattern of recidivism.

Sentences for Adult Felons in Washington: Identifying Changes That Could Reduce Costs Without Endangering Public Safety - Interim Report

The 2003 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to determine if there are changes to Washington’s sentencing structure that could reduce costs without endangering public safety. This interim report describes the research plan, as well as the steps taken as of December 2003.

The final report is available in two parts:
Part I: Historical Trends
Part II: Recidivism Analyses

Washington’s Offender Accountability Act: An Analysis of the Department of Corrections’ Risk Assessment

In 1999, the Washington State Legislature passed the Offender Accountability Act (OAA). The OAA affects how the state provides community supervision to adults convicted of felony crimes. The Legislature directed the Institute to determine if the OAA achieves reduced re-offense rates (recidivism) and improvements in other outcomes. In this report, we examine how well the risk assessment instrument adopted by DOC—the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R)—predicts recidivism in a sample of 22,533 Washington offenders. We also explore possible improvements to the instrument and how a revised classification approach might work within the OAA.

Recommended Quality Control Standards: Washington State Research-Based Juvenile Offender Programs

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate research-based juvenile court programs. In 2002, the Institute's preliminary evaluation found that the programs cost-effectively reduced recidivism-but only when faithfully adhering to the original program design. Based on this finding, the 2003 Legislature directed the Institute to develop adherence and outcome standards to ensure quality implementation of juvenile justice research-based programs. In developing this report, the Institute worked with the juvenile courts, JRA, program developers, and the state's program experts.

Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative (DOSA): Treatment and Supervision

The 1999 Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate DOSA, a drug treatment alternative for felony drug and property offenders who receive a prison sentence. In this presentation to the Sentencing Guidelines Commission, we examine how DOSA has been implemented. Are DOSA offenders: (1) receiving and completing treatment?, and (2) held accountable for behavior that violates DOSA sentence conditions through sanctions and revocations? The final DOSA report, due to the Legislature in December 2004, focuses on criminal recidivism and cost-effectiveness, using a pre-post study design with a treatment and comparison group.

Costs and Benefits of Prevention and Early Intervention Programs for At-Risk Youth: Interim Report

The 2003 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to undertake a cost-benefit analysis of prevention and early intervention programs for at-risk youth. This interim report describes the scope of the project.

Outcome Evaluation of Washington State's Research-Based Programs for Juvenile Offenders

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature passed the Community Juvenile Accountability Act (CJAA) to reduce juvenile crime by establishing “research-based” programs in the state’s juvenile courts. The CJAA funded the nation’s first statewide experiment concerning research-based programs for juvenile justice. Because selected treatment programs had already been researched elsewhere in the United States, usually as small scale pilot projects, the question here was whether they work when applied statewide in a “real world” setting. This report indicates that the answer to this question is yes— when the programs are competently delivered.

Mentally Ill Misdemeanants: An Evaluation of Change in Public Safety Policy

The 1998 Legislature significantly revised public safety and treatment policies regarding mentally ill offenders charged with misdemeanors by extending the criminal competency restoration process to misdemeanant defendants, broadening the involuntary civil commitment process for both misdemeanor and felony offenders, and strengthening information sharing provisions of the law. The Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the outcomes of competency restoration and involuntary civil commitment treatment under the new law. This study addresses whether the legislation influenced the process of competency evaluation and whether the main legislative objectives have been met.

Economic Development Accountability Laws

As part of an overall economic development strategy, state and local governments have provided a variety of financial incentives to attract new businesses or encourage existing firms to remain or expand. Some cities and states have enacted accountability measures to better gauge whether job creation and other economic development goals are being met and to provide additional information on economic development spending. This report provides brief descriptions of three broad approaches to accountability provisions.

Impacts of Tax Exemptions: An Overview

Tax exemptions—tax preferences such as deductions, credits, or preferential rates—benefit specific groups of taxpayers. This report provides an overview of the tax exemption concept and a summary of research on tax exemption impacts, with an emphasis on exemptions in the economic development area.

Alternative Routes to Teacher Certification in Washington State: Evaluation Update

In 2001, the Washington State Legislature adopted recommendations from the Professional Educator Standards Board (PESB) and created three alternative routes to certification for prospective teachers in Washington. The legislation directed the Institute to evaluate the programs and produce a final report by December 2004. This update describes the evaluation steps undertaken in 2003 and plans for 2004.

Long-Term Outcomes of Public Mental Health Clients: Preliminary Report

In response to a performance audit of the state’s mental health system, the 2001 Washington State Legislature passed ESSB 5583, which calls for the development of an outcomes-based performance system to be implemented by the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS). This legislation also directs the Institute to conduct a longitudinal study of long-term state-funded mental health client outcomes. This report describes the research steps involved in the longitudinal study and provides preliminary information on the sample of individuals to be analyzed.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey: Summary of Survey Questions and Answers

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report focuses on the survey of chemical dependency treatment providers.

For reports on related surveys click on the links below.

Court Survey
Evaluator Survey
Service Provider Survey
Social Work Supervisor Survey
Timing of Services to Parents

Court Survey: Summary of Survey Questions and Answers

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report focuses on the survey of the juvenile courts.

For reports on related surveys click on the links below.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey
Evaluator Survey
Service Provider Survey
Social Work Supervisor Survey
Timing of Services to Parents

Evaluator Survey: Summary of Survey Questions and Answers

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report focuses on the survey of facilities that provide psychological evaluations of parents in child abuse and neglect cases.

For reports on related surveys click on the links below.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey
Court Survey
Service Provider Survey
Social Work Supervisor Survey
Timing of Services to Parents

Service Provider Survey: Summary of Survey Questions and Answers

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report focuses on the survey of a subset of facilities that provide services other than chemical dependency to parents in child abuse and neglect cases.

For reports on related surveys click on the links below.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey
Court Survey
Evaluator Survey
Social Work Supervisor Survey
Timing of Services to Parents

Social Work Supervisor Survey: Summary of Survey Questions and Answers

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report focuses on the survey of social work supervisors.

For reports on related surveys click on the links below.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey
Court Survey
Evaluator Survey
Service Provider Survey
Timing of Services to Parents

Timing of Services to Parents: Consequences for Federal Timelines

The Dependency and Termination Equal Justice Committee (DTEJC) was established by the Office of Public Defense, at legislative direction, to study several aspects of child dependency cases. To inform itself about service providers and practices of the courts and of DSHS, the DTEJC elected to survey five populations. This report draws information from the surveys for a visual display of times required to complete various services and mandated court timelines.

For reports on the individual surveys, click on the links below.

Chemical Dependency Treatment Provider Survey
Court Survey
Evaluator Survey
Service Provider Survey
Social Work Supervisor Survey

Assessing Risk for Re-Offense: Validating the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment

The 1997 Washington State Legislature enacted the Community Juvenile Accountability Act (CJAA) to test the use of “research-based” programs to reduce juvenile offender recidivism. The act required the use of a risk assessment to assign youth to these programs. The Washington Association of Juvenile Court Administrators worked with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to develop the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA). The assessment was implemented in 1999 as a two-stage process. The first stage is a pre-screen assessment completed for all youth placed on probation. The second stage, a full assessment, is required for youth assessed as moderate or high risk on the pre-screen. This report examines the validity of the pre-screen and full assessment.

Sentences for Adult Felons in Washington: Options to Address Prison Overcrowding – Part I (Historical Trends).

The 2003 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to determine if there are changes to Washington’s sentencing structure that could reduce the growth in the prison population, and its associated costs, without endangering public safety. Our findings will be published in two parts. In this report—Part I—we provide an overall context for the study by reviewing Washington’s sentencing system and examining the growth trends of the prison population. Part II of this study, which estimates the impact that prison sentences have on recidivism, was published in June 30, 2004.

Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment Manual, Version 2.1

The 1997 Community Juvenile Accountability Act (CJAA) specified that the Washington State Department of Social and Health Service’s Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, in consultation with the Washington Association of Juvenile Court Administrators, the State Law and Justice Advisory Council, and the Family Policy Council, establish guidelines for the Community Juvenile Accountability Programs. These requirements necessitated the development of a comprehensive assessment designed to meet the requirements of the Washington State Association of Juvenile Court Administrators and the 1997 CJAA. This report is the manual for this assessment, called the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA).

How Do Court Continuances Influence the Time Children Spend in Foster Care?

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to investigate how reductions in court delays may influence foster care costs. In the courts, child dependency cases range in duration from a single day to five years or more. Over the course of a case, children may be placed in multiple, temporary settings. Logic suggests that the longer a dependency is open in the court, the more time children will spend in state-paid foster care. Court continuances (the postponement of hearings or trials) could be expected to extend the life of a court case, and hence, the time a child spends in foster care. This study examines how court continuances in dependency cases affect the time children spend in state foster care, and also examines the effects of continuances on the length of dependency and termination cases.

Decline in Washington’s Family Reunifications: What Influenced This Trend?

When children are removed from home due to child abuse or neglect or because of the child’s behavior, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) may file a dependency case in the court. Or, in cases where parents agree to the placement, services may be provided to the family to help resolve their problems without going to court. In both instances, when it is possible to do so safely, the goal of DSHS is to reunify the family.

Between 1995 and 2002, the annual number of reunifications dropped by 31 percent. The Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to identify factors that reduce family reunifications in Washington. To do this, we merged administrative records from DSHS with court records of dependencies for the same children. We found that most of the reduction in reunifications has occurred because the number of out-of-home placements has dropped, not because of any significant change in rate of reunification.

Recommendations for the MAA Forecast Process: Final Report

In April 2004, the Institute was asked by the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS), the Office of Financial Management (OFM), and legislative staff to review the Medical Assistance Administration (MAA) expenditure forecast process and to make recommendations on how to improve it. This report summarizes the final recommendations.

Sentences for Adult Felons in Washington: Options to Address Prison Overcrowding – Part II (Recidivism Analyses)

The 2003 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to analyze how sentences for adult felons affect the state’s prison population. Our task is to determine whether policy changes to Washington’s sentencing structure could reduce the growth in the prison population without jeopardizing public safety. Our findings are published in three parts. Part I, published in March 2004, reviewed the sentencing structure for Washington and examined the growth of the prison population. Part III will summarize the study’s findings. This report, Part II, examines the statistically estimated impact of imprisonment and sentence lengths on recidivism. That is, do offenders sentenced to prison, and those who receive longer prison sentences, recidivate more or less often than similar offenders not sentenced to prison or who receive shorter sentences? Can these policy levers be adjusted to reduce prison populations without adversely affecting public safety?

Benefits and Costs of Prevention and Early Intervention Programs for Youth

Updated September 17, 2004
Does prevention pay? Can an ounce of prevention avoid (at least) an ounce of cure? More specifically for public policy purposes, is there credible scientific evidence that for each dollar a legislature spends on “research-based” prevention or early intervention programs for youth, more than a dollar’s worth of benefits will be generated? If so, what are the policy options that offer taxpayers the best return on their dollar? These are among the ambitious questions the 2003 Washington State Legislature assigned the Washington State Institute for Public Policy. This report describes our findings and provides an overview of how we conducted the analysis.

The “summary report” link contains a summary of findings. Appendix A contains a full description of our results and methods, and Appendix B lists the references used in the study. We publish updates whenever significant new results become available.

Washington's Juvenile Basic Training Camp: Outcome Evaluation

The 1994 Washington State Legislature created the juvenile offender basic training camp located in Connell, Franklin County. The Department of Social and Health Services’ Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration designed and implemented the Basic Training Camp (BTC) and contracted with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to determine whether the basic training camp program reduces recidivism and is cost beneficial to taxpayers and crime victims. This evaluation compares youth who were eligible for the BTC but were admitted to JRA in 1997, two years prior to the start of the camp, with youth admitted to the BTC between 1998 and 2002.

Impact and Effectiveness of Washington State's Current Sex Offender Sentencing Policies: Research Design

This report describes the research design for a legislatively directed study of Washington State's sex offender policies and programs.

Preserving and Providing Access to Washington Women's History

The 2004 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to make recommendations regarding the development of a state women’s history organization. Based on extensive consultations, the Institute recommends creation of a women’s history consortium with the Washington State Historical Society as the host organization. Initially, the consortium would focus on compiling and disseminating online information about materials involving Washington women’s history and identifying significant gaps in existing collections.

Washington State’s Family Integrated Transitions Program for Juvenile Offenders: Outcome Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis

In 2000, the Washington State Legislature initiated a pilot rehabilitation program for juvenile offenders sentenced to a state juvenile justice institution. The program focuses on offenders with “co-occurring” substance abuse and mental health disorders. Offenders with both of these conditions are known to pose a high risk for committing new crimes upon re-entry to the community. The program—called the Family Integrated Transitions (FIT) program—was designed and implemented by Eric Trupin, Ph.D., and David Stewart, Ph.D., from the University of Washington. The program uses a combination of evidence-based approaches tailored to the particular needs of these high-risk youth. In this report, we present findings on the effectiveness of FIT in reducing recidivism, as well as an analysis of the program’s benefits and costs.

Alternative Routes to Teacher Certification in Washington State: Final Report

Washington’s alternative routes to teacher certification were created by the 2001 Legislature. These routes provide an avenue—other than enrolling in a teacher training program at a college or university—for professionals in other fields and classified school staff to become teachers. The Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the programs created by the law. This final report describes the initial programs as established in 2002–03, outlines major changes that have occurred in the intervening two years, and looks at how well the programs met the legislative objectives.

In-depth descriptions of the individual programs and responses to surveys are published separately in the appendix.

Outcome Evaluations of Washington State's WorkFirst Program: Key Findings

WorkFirst, Washington State’s implementation of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), began in April 1997. TANF is a major change in how the state assists low-income families. The program helps parents look for work and provides employment-specific training and basic education opportunities. A number of independent analyses have attempted to estimate employment, earnings, and other outcomes directly attributable to the overall program or to specific program activities, such as Job Search, Community Jobs, Customized Job Skills Training, and Post-Employment Services. This report summarizes the key findings of these analyses.

Correctional Industries Programs for Adult Offenders in Prison: Estimates of Benefits and Costs

In recent years, the Washington State Legislature has directed the Institute to identify evidence-based programs that can lower crime and give Washington taxpayers a good return on their money. The purpose of this short report is to update previously published findings pertaining to correctional industries programs for adult prisoners.

Washington's Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative: An Evaluation of Benefits and Costs

The Washington State legislature directed the Institute to evaluate whether the Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative (DOSA) influences recidivism rates and whether the benefits of DOSA outweigh the costs. We analyzed the effects of the legislation by comparing a group of offenders who received DOSA sentences with a similar group of offenders sentenced prior to the 1999 implementation date of DOSA. As described in the report, our overall finding is that DOSA is an effective criminal justice policy for drug offenders but neutral for drug-involved property offenders.

English Language Learners in K-12: Trends, Policies, and Research in Washington State

The 2004 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to review the state Transitional Bilingual Instructional Program (TBIP). The Institute interviewed TBIP staff at the state and school district levels; analyzed student enrollment and assessment data; and reviewed laws, policies, and research on instruction for English language learners (ELL students) in the public K–12 school system.

Involuntary Commitment of Sexually Violent Predators: Comparing State Laws

In 1990, the Washington State Legislature passed a new form of involuntary commitment for sex offenders identified as “sexually violent predators” (SVPs). This law permits the state to retain custody of individuals found by a judge or jury to pose risks for reoffending. Since Washington’s enactment, 16 other states have adopted similar laws. Texas requires outpatient treatment rather than confinement; Pennsylvania law pertains only to 20-year-olds “aging out” of the juvenile system.

This paper summarizes key features of the SVP laws, focusing on three questions:

How many individuals have been held under these laws?
How many have been released under some form of less restrictive alternative?
What are the program costs?

Washington’s Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Law: Was Community Safety Increased?

The 1999 Washington State Legislature passed Substitute Senate Bill 5011 to improve the process of identifying and providing additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders who are being released from the Department of Corrections (DOC), who pose a threat to public safety, and agree to participate in the program. A “Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender” (DMIO) is identified in the legislation as a person with a mental disorder who has been determined to be dangerous to self or others. The legislation also directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) and the Washington Institute for Mental Illness Research and Training (WIMIRT) to evaluate the Act to determine:

Whether criminal recidivism or inpatient hospitalization was reduced;
Whether mental health, drug/alcohol, case management, housing assistance, and other services were improved;
Whether the risk assessment tool assessing dangerousness was valid; and
Whether the state saved money because of early Medicaid enrollment or reduced use of DOC beds.

These outcomes were analyzed by comparing DMIO participants released from prison (DMIO participants) with a similar group of offenders from the Community Transition Study (CTS), who were released in 1996 and 1997. This study covers all offenders admitted to the program during its first two years, and who were followed in the community for 18 months after their release from prison. The DMIO program was designed to serve participants for five years after prison release; this evaluation covers the first 18 months of a 60-month program.

High School Graduation Rates in Washington and the United States: A Long-Run View

This short report presents updated data on Washington's high school graduation rate, along with the national rate. We also highlight results from our recent report on the long-run implications of not graduating from high school.

The Institute's previous findings on graduation rates are in the 1996 publication Trends in At-Risk Behaviors of Youth in Washington.

Long-Term Outcomes of Public Mental Health Clients: Additional Baseline Characteristics

The 2002 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to conduct a longitudinal study on the outcomes of state-funded mental health clients. A preliminary report provided baseline information on clients' age, gender, race, education enrollment status, employment, living situation, and selected mental health conditions. This report provides additional data on baseline characteristics of Washington’s public mental health clients, including criminal justice involvement, mental health functioning assessment scores, and caseloads of regional support networks. In addition, data are provided on clients’ use of mental health services and their employment status and earnings in 2002. An outcomes report showing changes between 2002 and 2004 will be completed by the end of 2005.

Do Patients on Atypical Antipsychotic Medications Have Better Outcomes?

The 2000 Legislature provided for the distribution of “atypical antipsychotic” medications to underserved populations with psychiatric disorders. Pierce County Regional Support Network (Pierce RSN) and Harborview Mental Health Services (HMHS) were participants in this pilot program, serving 282 and 192 clients, respectively. Both programs fulfilled the legislative requirements, serving a severely mentally ill population with few resources. The programs provided temporary access to medications, helping to fill the funding gap between the time a low-income person needs medication until a Medicaid coupon or an alternative medication funding source becomes available. Many participants transitioned onto Medicaid: approximately 40 percent of participants in both programs were Medicaid eligible in state records six months after the program ended. Nearly two-thirds of program participants stayed in the program for no more than two months.

The only feasible research design was a comparison of participants before and after the program. This design does not allow scientific conclusions about a program’s effectiveness. Comparing the year prior to and after program entry, Pierce RSN participants showed fewer felony and misdemeanor criminal convictions and psychiatric hospital admissions and increased participation in outpatient services; no improvement in employment status was found. HMHS participants had increased participation in outpatient services, showed slightly fewer felony convictions, but no improvement in misdemeanor convictions, psychiatric hospitalizations, or employment status

Declining Use of Subsidized Child Care: The Role of Criminal Background Checks

Between 2002 and 2004, the Working Connections Child Care caseload fell by 13 percent. Until recently, the declines were attributed to cost saving measures implemented in 2002 and 2003. A recent report by the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) found that caseload declines occurred only in unlicensed child care and suggests that new policies regarding criminal background checks of in-home/relative providers might be the primary reason for the caseload reductions.

To determine if there is a causal link between criminal background check policies and the caseload declines, the Institute conducted a statistical analysis of data combined from multiple administrative data systems. After controlling for family characteristics, type of child care used, employment, and the welfare caseload, the analysis revealed several significant impacts attributable to criminal background check policies.

Findings: Requiring a criminal background check per se did not affect the child care caseload. However, recent changes to policies and procedures regarding the timing and scope of background checks have: discouraged the use of in-home/relative care; contributed strongly to the decline in caseload; and disproportionately affected families receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).

Washington's Offender Accountability Act: A First Look at Outcomes

The 1999 Washington State Legislature passed the Offender Accountability Act (OAA) to affect how the state provides community supervision to adult felony offenders. To determine whether the OAA results in lower recidivism rates, the Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the impact of the Act. This report provides an initial opportunity to examine the effect of the OAA's first year of operation on short-run recidivism rates.

Introducing the Study Series

This introduction describes the sentencing process, study questions, and data sources.

Measuring Recidivism

This report explains the rationale for the selected follow-up and adjudication periods used to measure recidivism.

Recidivism Rates

This report describes the recidivism rates of Washington State sex offenders.

How Sex Offenders Differ From Other Felony Offenders

This report describes how offenders sentenced in Washington State superior court for felony sex offenses differ from those sentenced for other felony offenses.

Initial Sentencing Decision

This report describes how sex offenders sentenced to prison, jail/community supervision, and SSOSA differ.

Predicting the Initial Sentencing Decision

This report addresses how accurately the type of sentence can be determined by combining the case attributes using multivariate analyses.

Comparing Arrests to Court Filings

This report examines the feasibility of using arrests recorded in the Washington State Patrol (WSP) database as a measure of sex offender recidivism.

Comparing Charges Filed to Convictions

This report examines the extent to which the original charges filed in a Washington State Superior Court felony sex offense case differ from the final convictions.

Criminal Justice Involvement Among Clients Receiving Public Mental Health Services

The 2002 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to conduct a longitudinal study on the outcomes of state-funded mental health clients to identify best practices in provision of public mental health services. Two preliminary reports from February 2004 and March 2005 provided baseline information on clients’ demographic characteristics, employment, living situation, selected mental health conditions, criminal justice involvement, mental health functioning assessment scores, use of mental health services, and on caseloads of regional support networks. This report provides details of baseline information for criminal justice involvement, one of the outcomes measures stipulated by the legislature. An outcomes report showing changes between 2002 and 2004 will be completed by the end of 2005.

Employment Characteristics of Clients Receiving Public Mental Health Services

The 2002 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to conduct a longitudinal study on the outcomes of state-funded mental health clients to identify best practices in provision of public mental health services. Two preliminary reports from February 2004 and March 2005 provided baseline information on clients’ demographic characteristics, employment, living situation, selected mental health conditions, criminal justice involvement, mental health functioning assessment scores, use of mental health services, and on caseloads of regional support networks. This report provides details of baseline information on employment outcomes, one of the outcomes measures stipulated by the legislature. An outcomes report showing changes between 2002 and 2004 will be completed by the end of 2005.

Evaluating Washington State's Community Jobs Program: Two-Year Employment Outcomes of 2002 Enrollees

Community Jobs is a Washington State WorkFirst program that places Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) clients into subsidized minimum wage jobs for up to six months. Community-based and tribal contractors provide intensive case management and seek to place clients in unsubsidized jobs. This evaluation compares the outcomes of 2,500 clients enrolled in Community Jobs in 2002 with a similar group of TANF clients who did not participate in the program. Several measures of unsubsidized employment were examined four to eight quarters after enrollment. The study found that 66 percent of enrollees were employed at least once during the follow-up period compared with 58 percent of non-participants. In any given quarter, employment rates for enrollees were 14 to 24 percent higher than non-participants. Enrollees, particularly women without recent work experience, were more likely to be continuously employed. Community Jobs is most effective for enrollees without recent work experience and more effective, over the long term, for women than men. In general, outcomes associated with Community Jobs are comparable to those provided by other WorkFirst programs even though Community Jobs serves clients who are harder to employ.

Has Community Notification Reduced Recidivism?

This report examines the influence of sex offender registration and community notification statutes on recidivism.

Notification Levels and Recidivism

This report examines how well the DOC End of Sentence Review Committee's notification levels predict recidivism.

Report Series Highlights

This presentation highlights key findings from the study series as of December 2005.

Washington State Sex Offender Risk Level Classification—Revised 1999

Risk Level Classification Form of the State of Washington, Department of Corrections, Revised 1999.

Washington State's Experience with Research-Based Juvenile Justice Programs: Presented at the Los Angeles County Juvenile Justice Conference May 19, 2005

This presentation describes Washington State's experiences implementing research-based programs in juvenile justice. The presentation includes a history of the research-based effort in Washington State, program outcome evaluations, quality assurance principles, and cost benefit meta-analyses. Presented at the Los Angles County Juvenile Justice Conference May 19, 2005. Robert Barnoski.

Evidence-Based Adult Corrections Programs: What Works and What Does Not

This report to the Washington State Legislature summarizes our latest review of evidence-based adult corrections programs. We previously published a review on this topic in 2001. In this study, we update and significantly extend our earlier effort.

We are publishing our current work in two installments. In this preliminary report, we provide a systematic review of the evidence on what works (and what does not) to reduce crime. In a subsequent final report, to be published in October 2006, this analysis will include a benefit-cost estimate for each option.

Options to Stabilize Prison Populations in Washington—Interim Report

The 2005 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to identify options that can cost-effectively reduce the need for future prison capacity. This brief interim report summarizes some general background information, discusses the research we have conducted to date, and outlines the work that will be completed in the final report, which will be presented to the Legislature by October 1, 2006.

Failure to Register as a Sex Offender—Revised

This report examines the relationship between failure to register as a sex offender and subsequent recidivism.

Sex Offender Risk Level Classification Tool and Recidivism

This report examines how well the components within the Sex Offender Risk Level Classification Tool, the notification considerations and risk assessment scores, predict felony sex recidivism.

Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative Trends

This report first examines trends in granting special sex offender sentencing alternatives (SSOSAs). The report then compares recidivism rate trends for those granted a SSOSA to sex offenders not granted a SSOSA.

Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative Revocations

This report examines special sex offender sentencing alternative ( SSOSA) revocations.

Predicting Recidivism Based on Demographics and Criminal History

This report describes how well a “static” risk tool being developed by the Institute for the Department of Corrections predicts recidivism for Washington State sex offenders. This tool is considered static, since it is based solely on demographic and criminal history data that cannot be changed.

Comparative Review of Washington State Schools for Students With Sensory Disabilities: Version 2

Revised

The 2005 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to compare service delivery, financing, and governance of the Washington State School for the Blind (WSB) and School for the Deaf (WSD). This study updates and expands a 2002 review of WSD. This report presents comparison data on the two schools and identifies policy options for the future.

Click here for the 2002 report and its accompanying literature review.

Evidence-Based Treatment of Chemical Dependency, Mental Illness, and Co-Occurring Disorders: Benefits, Costs, and Fiscal Impacts—Interim Report

The 2005 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to examine the following questions:

Can evidence-based treatment for people with mental health and chemical dependency disorders save money for state and local governments?
Viewed more broadly, do total benefits outweigh total costs?

The specific assigned task is to project state and local fiscal savings and other impacts of evidence-based treatments for those with chemical dependency disorders, mental illness, or both. This interim report summarizes the research approach and work currently underway. A final report will be presented to the Legislature by June 30, 2006.

Sex Offender Sentencing in Washington State: Predicting Recidivism Based on the LSI-R

This report analyzes the relative accuracy of the LSI-R in predicting felony sex recidivism for Washington State sex offenders.

Washington State's Community Notification Law: 15 Years of Change

In 1990, Washington became the first state to authorize the release of information regarding sex offenders to the public. Since then, the law has been amended numerous times to expand its application, increase uniformity across counties, and increase citizen access.

Long-Term Outcomes of Public Mental Health Clients: Two-Year Follow-Up

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to conduct a longitudinal study on the outcomes of state-funded mental health clients to identify best practices in the provision of public mental health services. This report contains the two-year follow-up of public mental health clients selected from the baseline year of 2002. Two sets of analyses are performed. The first examines differences in client profiles between all baseline clients and those who continued to receive public mental health services in 2004. The second examines outcomes in 2004 of all adult clients from the baseline and client characteristics associated with variation in outcomes. Outcomes examined include utilization of public mental health services, utilization of other public medical services, employment, and criminal justice involvement.

Intensive Family Preservation Services: Program Fidelity Influences Effectiveness—Revised

This study reviews all rigorous evaluations of Intensive Family Preservation Services (IFPS) programs. We sorted these evaluations based on fidelity to the Homebuilders® model. Findings: IFPS programs that adhere closely to the Homebuilders® model significantly reduce out-of-home placements and subsequent abuse and neglect. We estimate that such programs produce $2.54 of benefits for each dollar of cost. Non-Homebuilders® programs produce no significant effect on either outcome.

Sex Offenders in Washington State: Key Findings and Trends

This report focuses on trends of adult sex offenders in Washington and summarizes key research findings.

Juvenile Sex Offenders Recommended for Commitment Under Washington's Sexually Violent Predator Law, Where No Petition Was Filed

Washington’s Sexually Violent Predator (SVP) statute permits the civil commitment of adult and juvenile sex offenders found to be a high risk to the public. Since the law’s enactment in 1990, to the end of 2003, 31 juvenile sex offenders were identified as possibly meeting the statutory criteria for civil commitment. These individuals represent approximately 1 percent of the total juvenile sex offenders paroled in this 13-year period.

The attorney general or prosecuting attorney declined to file on two-thirds (21) of these referrals; the individuals were released to the community. Follow-up data were available for all 21 juveniles through December 31, 2005.

Who Participates in the Prison Treatment Program?

This report examines trends in Sex Offender Treatment Program (SOTP) participation as a first step in identifying a valid comparison group needed to evaluate the impact of SOTP on recidivism.

Does the Prison Treatment Program Reduce Recidivism?

This report estimates whether the Sex Offender Treatment Program (SOTP) reduces recidivism by comparing the recidivism rates of sex offenders who were willing but did not participate in SOTP with those who did participate in the program.

Chemical Dependency Disposition Alternative for Juvenile Offenders: Is an Outcome Evaluation Feasible?

The Chemical Dependency Disposition Alternative (CDDA) was created by the 1997 Washington State Legislature as a sentencing option for juvenile offenders. The goal was to reduce recidivism by providing treatment for chemically dependent or substance abusing youth. This report assesses the feasibility of conducting a retrospective outcome evaluation to compare the recidivism rates of a CDDA group to similar youth who did not receive CDDA. We investigated two potential comparison groups: substance abusing youth adjudicated before CDDA started, and substance abusing youth receiving no treatment after CDDA started. The Institute found that an appropriate comparison group could not be identified. Thus, it was not possible to evaluate the impact of CDDA on recidivism.

Chemical Dependency Disposition Alternative for Juvenile Offenders: Statewide Variation in Implementation

The Chemical Dependency Disposition Alternative (CDDA) was created by the 1997 Washington State Legislature as a sentencing option for juvenile offenders. The goal was to reduce recidivism by providing treatment for chemically dependent or substance abusing youth. The Institute was directed by the 1997 Legislature to evaluate CDDA to determine its impacts on recidivism. The Institute surveyed the courts to determine how to identify both the CDDA and the CDDA comparison groups. After the initial phase of data collection, the Institute found that an appropriate comparison group could not be identified. Thus, it was not possible to evaluate the impact of CDDA on recidivism or conduct a cost-benefit analysis. However, the survey revealed variations in the implementation of CDDA across the state.

Evidence-based Treatment of Alcohol, Drug, and Mental Health Disorders: Potential Benefits, Costs, and Fiscal Impacts for Washington State

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the 2005 Washington Legislature to estimate whether “evidence-based” treatment for people with alcohol, drug, and mental health disorders offers economic advantages. Do benefits outweigh costs? And, if so, what is the magnitude of the potential fiscal savings to government, as well as the total net benefits to all of Washington?

To answer these questions, we systematically reviewed the “what works” literature regarding treatments for people with alcohol, drug, and mental health disorders. We then estimated the monetary value of the benefits, including factors such as improved performance in the job market, reduced health care and other costs, and reduced crime-related costs.

Recidivism Findings for the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Dialectical Behavior Therapy Program: Final Report

The Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration’s Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) pilot to determine if DBT reduces recidivism. DBT is a program for juvenile offenders who have mental health issues and reside in a state institution. The Institute conducted a preliminary study of the program in 2002, using a 12-month follow-up period, and found the program reduced felony recidivism. This report updates the 2002 study using a longer follow-up period to measure recidivism.

Recidivism Findings for the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration's Mentoring Program: Final Report

The Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration’s mentoring program. The Institute conducted a preliminary analysis of the program in 2002 using a 12-month follow-up period and found reduced recidivism for mentor participants. This report updates the preliminary findings by using a longer follow-up period to measure recidivism.

The Effects of Parole on Recidivism: Juvenile Offenders Released from Washington State Institutions: Final Report

In July 1998, the Washington State Legislature eliminated parole for youth released from Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) institutions for all but high risk and sex offenders. In a 2001 report, preliminary recidivism findings were compared for juvenile offenders released on parole with juvenile offenders released without parole. Results indicated that parole does not have an influence on recidivism. In this study, the Institute used a longer follow-up period and added a second comparison group. This 2006 study is therefore a more rigorous test of the effect of parole on recidivism for most juvenile offenders.

Washington State Criminal Records Audit: Meeting 1, Review of Research Design

The Institute was contracted by the Office of Financial Management to determine the completeness and accuracy of Washington State’s criminal history databases for adult felons. The following databases are included in the study: the Washington State Patrol, the Department of Corrections, the Administrative Office of the Courts, and the Sentencing Guidelines Commission. This presentation discusses the proposed research design for the study. The final report will be completed by April 2007.

Study Design: Benefits and Costs of K-12 Educational Programs and Services

The 2006 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to "begin the development of a repository of research and evaluations of the cost-benefits of various educational programs and services." This report describes the methodology we are using for this study. Results will be presented in a second report in March 2007.

A Historic Look at the WASL and High School Graduation

This report examines the historical relationship between student performance on the 10th-grade Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) and subsequent high school graduation.

Evidence-Based Public Policy Options to Reduce Future Prison Construction, Criminal Justice Costs, and Crime Rates

Under current long-term forecasts, Washington State faces the need to construct several new prisons in the next two decades. Since new prisons are costly, the 2005 Washington Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to project whether there are “evidence-based” options that can: a) reduce the future need for prison beds, b) save money for state and local taxpayers, and c) contribute to lower crime rates. This report describes our findings and discusses how we conducted the analysis. We review evidence-based adult corrections, juvenile corrections, and prevention options and analyze the effects of alternative portfolios of these investments.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Summary Results

This report provides an overview of 10th-grade WASL results for spring 2006.

Washington State Criminal History Records Audit for Adult Felonies: Introducing the Study Series

In 2006, the Office of Financial Management contracted with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to conduct an audit of the Washington State criminal history records systems for adult felonies. Databases included in the audit are from the Administrative Office of the Courts, the Department of Corrections, the Sentencing Guidelines Commission, and the Washington State Patrol. This report is the first of a series and describes the research design and databases to be included in the study. The final report of the series will be completed by April 2007.

How Different Base Populations Affect WASL Results

A basic indicator of student performance on the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) is the percentage of students who meet standard. This percentage can vary depending on which students are included in the calculation. As one in a series of reports on the WASL, this analysis describes the different ways to calculate the “met standard” rate.

Tenth-Grade Alternate Assessments for Special Populations: Summary Results

As one in a series of reports on the WASL, this report describes the use of alternate assessments for tenth grade students in special education in spring 2006.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Results by Race and Ethnicity—Revised

This report summarizes results of the 10th-grade WASL in spring 2006 by the racial/ethnic characteristics of students.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Associations Among Subject Areas

This report describes associations among subject-area results for the 78,020 10th-grade students who completed the WASL in spring 2006. The analysis finds that the associations among subject-area results on the WASL are strong even though more 10th graders met standard in reading and writing than in math.

Tenth-Grade WASL Strands: Student Performance Varies Considerably Over Time

This report examines longitudinal variability in student performance on math, reading, and writing strands for the 10th-grade Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL).

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Open-Ended and Multiple Choice Questions

This report examines the relationship between student performance on multiple-choice and open-ended items on the 10th-grade Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) in spring 2006.

Washington's Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative: An Update on Recidivism Findings

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) was directed by the Legislature to evaluate the impacts of DOSA. DOSA was originally enacted in 1995 as a sentencing alternative. When ordered by a court, a felony offender’s sentence time is reduced in exchange for completing chemical dependency treatment. Prior to 2005 legislation, DOSA was restricted to a “prison-based” treatment alternative. The 2005 changes created a “community-based” DOSA for offenders with non-prison sentences. Because only 30 offenders have received this community alternative to date, further implementation is necessary before an evaluation of the community-based DOSA can be completed. This report updates our 2005 study of the original “prison-based” DOSA, extending the follow-up from 24 to 36-months. In our earlier report, we found that recidivism rates were lower for drug offenders receiving DOSA, but not for property offenders. With a 36-month follow-up, our findings did not change. That is, prison-based DOSA significantly lowers recidivism rates for drug offenders, but has no statistically significant effect on recidivism rates of property offenders.

Student Performance on the 10th-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Interim Report

This interim report summarizes the work completed to date.

Summer 2006 Promoting Academic Success Program: Influence on WASL Retake Scores—Revised

The 2006 Legislature also directed the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of Promoting Academic Success (PAS) remedial programs in helping students meet standard on the WASL. The study goals are to determine the overall effectiveness of PAS; the relative effectiveness of different remedial strategies; and the relative effectiveness disaggregated by student characteristics.

This report examines the overall effectiveness of summer 2006 PAS programs to help students meet standard on the WASL in August 2006. Effectiveness is defined as the difference in met-standard rates on the August WASL for students who did and did not participate in summer 2006 PAS.

Methamphetamine Crimes: Washington's Laws Compared With Neighboring States—Revised

In recent years, the manufacture and production of methamphetamine in small homemade labs has declined significantly. Changes at both the state and federal level have restricted the supply and availability of pseudoephedrine, a major precursor in the manufacture of methamphetamine. Demand for methamphetamine, however, remains high. According to law enforcement officials, much of the methamphetamine available today is supplied by drug trafficking organizations from Mexico. As manufacturing of methamphetamine declines, trafficking and distribution is becoming a regional issue that states and the federal government must address cooperatively.

The 2006 Washington State Legislature asked the Institute to examine "criminal sentencing increases necessary under Washington law to reduce or remove any incentives methamphetamine traffickers and manufacturers may have to locate in Washington." This report looks at differences in sentencing laws for methamphetamine possession, manufacture, and distribution in Washington and neighboring states. The report provides opinions from experts in steps Washington may take to curb the availability and use of methamphetamine.

The Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Program: Cost Effectiveness 2.5 Years After Participants' Prison Release

Washington State's Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender (DMIO) program, enabled by the 1999 Legislature, identifies mentally ill prisoners who pose a threat to public safety and provides them services and treatment up to five years after their release from prison.

WSIPP and the Washington Institute for Mental Illness Research and Training were directed by the legislature to evaluate the program.

Textbook Alignment With Washington State Learning Standards: Summary of OSPI's Review—Revised

The study legislation also directed the Institute to “identify possible barriers to student success or possible causes of the lack of success” on the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL).

Curriculum alignment, defined as the congruence among instructional materials, practices, and assessments, is a necessary ingredient of student success on the WASL. Without alignment, students face a potential barrier. Therefore, the Institute is investigating ways to analyze the extent to which curricula, instruction, and assessments are aligned.

This report summarizes the history of efforts to align the curriculum in Washington and presents results from a data analysis of reading and mathematics textbooks in Washington.

PowerPoint Presentation: Performance on the 10th-Grade WASL: Summary of Findings to Date

This is a copy of the Institute's presentation to the Washington State House of Representatives Education Committee on January 19, 2007.

PowerPoint Presentation: Alternative Assessment Options for High School Graduation

This is a copy of the Institute's presentation to the Washington State Senate Early Learning and K-12 Education Committee on January 17, 2007.

Immigrant Secondary Students in Washington State: Population Trends and High School Diploma Programs

The 2005 Legislature directed the Institute to “conduct an analysis of the availability, services, and effectiveness of programs in community and technical colleges that serve the educational needs of recent immigrant students who are not proficient in English and who are or have been enrolled in high school but have not met graduation requirements.” This review provides information about immigrant student population trends, special challenges, and academic outcomes, as well as a description of available programs in Washington and other states.

Tenth-Grade WASL Results in Spring 2006: Association Between Poverty and WASL Performance by Race/Ethnicity

This report examines 10th-grade WASL results in spring 2006 for students who are classified as in poverty and not in poverty, by race/ethnicity.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Relative Strength of Associations Between Student Characteristics and Met-Standard Rates

This report describes the relative strength of associations between various student characteristics and "met-standard" rates on the 10th-grade WASL results in spring 2006.

Educational Services for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children: Preliminary Report on Stakeholder Views

The 2006 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to “hire a meeting facilitator to conduct a series of meetings with a broad group of stakeholders to examine the strengths and weaknesses of educational services available to deaf and hard of hearing children throughout the state.” The legislation further directed the Institute to “develop recommendations that would establish an integrated system of instructional and support programs that would provide deaf and hard of hearing children with the knowledge and skills necessary for them to be successful in their adult lives and the ‘hearing’ world of work.”

This preliminary report summarizes views from stakeholder meetings, focus groups, and interviews conducted between September and December 2006. Stakeholder consultations will continue through March 2007. A final report with recommendations is due June 2007.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: How Individual Student Characteristics Are Associated With Performance

This report describes how student characteristics are individually associated with performance on the reading, writing, and math assessments of the 10th-grade WASL in spring 2006, and identifies groups of students with the lowest and highest met-standard rates.

Alternative Assessment Options for High School Graduation: Interim Report—Revised

This report reviews the three alternative assessment options authorized in Washington state and considers four additional alternatives.

Who Has and Has Not Yet Completed the 10th-Grade WASL?

As part of this mandate, the Institute was instructed to identify possible barriers to student success on the WASL, one of which is non-completion of all three subject-area assessments.

This report identifies the characteristics of students in the class of 2008 who are slated to take the WASL but have not yet completed all three subject areas: reading, writing, and math.

Promoting Academic Success Program: Summer 2006 Instructor Survey Results

The 2006 Washington State Legislature created the Promoting Academic Success (PAS) program to provide remediation for 10th-grade students who do not meet standard in one or more content areas of the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL).

The Legislature also directed the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of remedial programs funded through PAS. This report describes the results of the survey administered to the summer 2006 PAS instructors about their instruction. The survey was conducted to obtain data describing the different remedial strategies offered in the classes. A subsequent report will analyze the relationship between the survey data and WASL retest results.

Washington's Offender Accountability Act: Department of Corrections' Static Risk Instrument

The Offender Accountability Act (OAA) was enacted by the Washington State Legislature in 1999. The OAA requires the Department of Corrections (DOC) to supervise felony offenders according to their risk for future offending.

In a 2003 report, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) analyzed the validity of DOC’s risk for reoffense instrument, the Level of Service Inventory—Revised (LSI-R). As part of the analysis, the Institute suggested that the predictive accuracy of the LSI-R could be strengthened by including more static risk information about an offender’s prior record of convictions. DOC subsequently asked the Institute to develop a new static risk instrument based on offender demographics and criminal history.

This report describes our evaluation of the validity of the static risk instrument developed for DOC. In October 2008, we updated Appendix C of the report to include the intercepts or constants for the three static risk score calculations. These intercepts are added to the summed weighted item scores to produce the risk scores. These constants are +20, +15, and +10 respectively for the Felony, Property & Violent, and Violent Risk Scores.

Washington's Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Law: Program Costs and Developments

In 1999, legislation was passed to better identify and provide additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders who were released from prison, who pose a threat to public safety, and agree to participate in the program. A “Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender” (DMIO) is defined by the legislation as a person with a mental disorder who has been determined to be dangerous to self or others.

As part of its legislative mandate, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy has published a series of reports that evaluate the DMIO program. A 2005 report demonstrated that the DMIO program significantly reduced recidivism after 1 1/2 years, and the 2007 follow-up report found that reductions in recidivism were sustained at the 2 1/2 year mark. The benefit-cost analysis in that report indicated that the reductions in DMIO recidivism generated financial benefits to taxpayers that were more than program costs.

This report examines how DMIO program funds are being used, how services and billings are tracked, changes in mental health funding, interagency collaboration, and how these impact program viability.

Benefits and Costs of K–12 Educational Policies: Evidence-Based Effects of Class Size Reductions and Full-Day Kindergarten

The Washington Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to begin conducting economic analyses of certain K–12 policies. Augmenting the work of the recent Washington Learns process, this report describes our initial cost-benefit findings for class size reductions and full-day vs. half-day kindergarten. Upcoming reports will examine other K–12 topics.

WASL Performance Trends in Grades 4, 7, and 10

This report tracks 4th-, 7th-, and 10th-grade WASL performance over time and by recent cohorts of students.

Long-Term and Cycling Clients: Washington State's Public Mental Health Services

In this report, we discuss existing measures of long-term and cycling use in public mental health services. We then propose new definitions that are relevant to the public mental health system in Washington State. Finally, we apply these new definitions to the state’s public mental health clients in 2002 to obtain counts of long-term users and cycling users.

Long-Term Outcomes of Public Mental Health Clients: Interim Report for 2002–2005

In 2001, the Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to conduct a longitudinal study of long-term outcomes for clients of the state’s public mental health system. The Legislature requested follow-up reports at two-, five-, and ten-year intervals.

This report documents changes in the study cohort from 2002 to 2005. It describes client retention rates and changes in clients’ mental health conditions, mental health service utilization, employment and wages, criminal justice involvement, and demographics.

Summary of Findings: WASL Reports to Date

This summary presents findings to date on these topics, organized by report release date.

Did Any Schools "Beat the Odds" on the 10th-Grade WASL in Spring 2006?

This report attempts to identify schools whose students performed above and below expectations on the 10th-grade WASL in spring 2006 given their demographic characteristics.

Six-Year Follow-Up of 135 Released Sex Offenders Recommended for Commitment Under Washington’s Sexually Violent Predator Law, Where No Petition Was Filed

Washington’s Sexually Violent Predator (SVP) statute permits the involuntary commitment of persons found by a jury to meet the statutory definition of a sexually violent predator. In a previous report, the Institute examined the recidivism of 89 released sex offenders referred by the Department of Corrections (DOC) as meeting the filing standards for civil commitment petitions, but for whom no petitions were filed.

This report extends the results of the previous study by adding 46 individuals who were referred by sources other than the DOC.

Evidence-Based Juvenile Offender Programs: Program Description, Quality Assurance, and Cost

Six juvenile offender programs identified by Institute as evidence-based are profiled through program descriptions, quality assurance information, and cost-benefit figures.

Educational Services for Deaf, Hard of Hearing, and Deaf-Blind Children in Washington State: Stakeholder Views

The 2006 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to "hire a meeting facilitator to conduct a series of meetings with a broad group of stakeholders to examine the strengths and weaknesses of educational services available to deaf and hard of hearing children throughout the state." This report describes the stakeholder consultations conducted and summarizes stakeholder views regarding Washington's educational system for deaf, hard of hearing, and deaf-blind children.

Children's Mental Health Evidence-Based Practice Pilot: Preliminary Evaluation Plan

In its 2006 regular session, the Legislature charged the Department of Social and Health Services Mental Health Division with establishing a pilot program to provide evidence-based mental health services to children, and the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) was directed to study the pilot.

The Institute's study will examine outcomes of children eligible from July 2007 through June 2008. A preliminary report will be completed by December 2008, an interim report by December 2009, and a final two-year follow-up report by September 2010.

Comparison of State Laws Authorizing Involuntary Commitment of Sexually Violent Predators: 2006 Update, Revised

In 1990, the Washington State Legislature passed a new form of involuntary commitment for sex offenders identified as “sexually violent predators” (SVPs). This law permits the state to retain custody of individuals found by a judge or jury to pose risks for reoffending.

This report updates the Institute’s 2005 study, “Involuntary Commitment of Sexually Violent Predators: Comparing State Laws,” and compares the now 20 states that have enacted or are planning to implement SVP laws. The 2005 report covered data through 2004; this report extends the timeframe through 2006 and includes information on the number of residents, discharges, and program costs.

Sex Offender Sentencing Options: Views of Child Victims and Their Parents

This report explores the views of child victims and their parents in sex offense cases from three Washington State counties: Benton, King, and Snohomish. All offenses were eligible for the Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative (SSOSA), a sentencing option that incorporates a jail sentence followed by outpatient treatment and supervision.

Offender Reentry Initiative: Recommended Criteria for the Community Transition Coordination Networks

The 2007 Legislature established a pilot program called Community Transition Coordination Networks for offenders reentering the community from confinement (ESSB 6157). The Department of Community, Trade and Economic Development (CTED) was tasked to review county proposals and select up to four CTCN pilot projects to receive grant funding. The Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy, by September 1, 2007, to recommend criteria for assisting CTED during the grant review process.

Deferred Prosecution of DUI Cases in Washington State: Evaluating the Impact on Recidivism

In 1975, the Washington State Legislature established a deferred prosecution option for offenders arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol and/or impairing drugs (DUI). This option was intended to encourage individuals to seek appropriate treatment. Under this option, defendants with a significant alcohol or drug dependence problem may petition the court to defer disposition of their charge until they have completed intensive substance dependence treatment and met other conditions required by the court.

Another option invoked to encourage treatment is prosecutor diversion, which allows the court to maintain supervision over defendants and impose conditions, including treatment and victim restitution.

In 2005, the legislature authorized the Washington Traffic Safety Commission to use federal funds to contract with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to evaluate the impact on recidivism of deferred prosecution, including prosecutor diversion, for DUI cases. In addition, this report examines whether DUI recidivism rates changed after 1998, when legislation was passed limiting eligibility and lengthening the supervision period for the deferred prosecution program.

Do Summer 2006 Promoting Academic Success Program Characteristics Influence WASL Retake Results?

This report focuses on the relative effectiveness of different Promoting Academic Success (PAS) summer school strategies used to help students meet standard on the WASL in August 2006.

Basic Education Finance: Initial Report to the Joint Task Force

This initial report to the task force provides background information and presents an overview of trends in student outcomes in Washington State; the October 2007 revision adds details about the research tasks assigned to the Institute.

Foster Care to College Partnership Evaluation: Program Overview and Research Design

The Foster Care To College Partnership (FCTCP) is a multi-year, grant-funded initiative aimed at improving rates of college entry for long-term state-dependent youth. Children’s Administration asked the Institute to conduct an evaluation of the activities funded by the FCTCP. This preliminary report provides a program overview and outlines the research plan.

The Underground Construction Economy in Washington State: A Review of the Literature and Preliminary Findings

This presentation was given to the Joint Task Force on the Underground Construction Economy on September 26, 2007.

Washington State Criminal Records Audit for Adult Felonies: Final Report

In 2005, the Office of Financial Management (OFM) obtained grant funding and contracted with the Institute to conduct an audit of Washington State's criminal history records systems for adult felonies. Databases included in the audit are from the Administrative Office of the Courts (AOC), Department of Corrections (DOC), Sentencing Guidelines Commission (SGC), and Washington State Patrol (WSP). The audit focuses on the completeness and accuracy of Washington's criminal history data system.

Our findings demonstrate that, although the state's criminal justice databases are not 100 percent accurate and complete, they are reasonably accurate. The databases can be improved by relying on: fingerprints for offender identification, electronic transmission of data without manual intervention, and a multi-agency criminal records work group to implement improvements.

Does Participation in Washington's Work Release Facilities Reduce Recidivism?

The 2007 Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate whether participation in Washington’s work release facilities impacts key outcomes, such as recidivism. The Institute was also directed to conduct a comprehensive review of all research evidence on work releases.

PowerPoint Presentation: Washington State’s Experience with Evidence-Based Juvenile Justice Programs and Their Effectiveness with Minority Youth

This presentation was given by Robert Barnoski, Ph.D., at the Honoring Cultural Communities in an EBP World conference, held December 4, 2007 in Tacoma.

Report to the Joint Task Force on Basic Education Finance: School Employee Compensation and Student Outcomes

The 2007 Washington State Legislature created the Joint Task Force on Basic Education Finance (Task Force). The Task Force must review and propose changes to the definition of basic education and current funding formulas. The legislative goals include: (a) realigning the basic education definition with the “new expectations of the state’s education system” and, (b) developing a funding structure “linked to accountability for student outcomes and performance.” The Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to provide staff support to the Task Force. In addition to general staff services, the legislation requires the Institute to provide three reports to the Task Force: an initial report by September 15, 2007, a second report by December 1, 2007, and a final report by September 15, 2008. This document is the Institute’s second report.

Washington's High School Assessment System: A Review of Student Performance on the WASL and Alternative Assessment Options

This final report addresses both components of the Institute’s assignment. The first section summarizes performance on the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) and analyzes the characteristics of students in the classes of 2008 and 2009 who have not yet met standard. The second section considers the impact of alternative assessment options on overall met-standard rates, discusses the cultural appropriateness of various student assessment options, describes the initial implementation of the Collection of Evidence (COE) option, and provides an overview of “multiple measures” assessment systems.

Integrated Crisis Response Pilots: Preliminary Report on Client Characteristics

In 2005, the Washington State Legislature passed E2SSB 5763, making a number of changes to the provision of substance abuse and mental health treatment funded by the state. The law directed the Department of Social and Health Services to establish two sites for the Integrated Crisis Response (ICR) Pilot Program.

The legislation also directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to determine if the ICR pilots cost-effectively improved mental health/chemical dependency evaluation, treatment, and outcomes of clients detained under the new statute. This preliminary report describes the key characteristics of clients investigated and detained at the ICR pilot sites during the first 16 months of the program. A final report will be published in September 2008.

Drug Offender Sentencing Grid: Preliminary Report

The Institute was directed by the 2002 Legislature to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug offense sentencing grid implemented in 2003. This preliminary report discusses changes in the sentencing grid and outlines our research design for the final report due in December 2008. In the final report, we will evaluate the effectiveness of the drug offense grid on recidivism and determine the financial impacts.

Promoting Academic Success: Influence on WASL Retake Scores Through Summer 2007

This report examines the effectiveness of Promoting Academic Success (PAS) for students in the class of 2008, where effectiveness is defined as the difference in performance on WASL retakes for students who did and did not participate in PAS. We conducted statistical analyses to evaluate effectiveness by subgroup, by PAS session, and overall effectiveness.

Washington's High School Assessment System: Student Performance on the WASL—Updated Through Summer 2007

This report provides an updated look at student performance on the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) for the classes of 2008 and 2009. The analyses include results from the most recent WASL administration in summer 2007.

Estimate of Students Eligible for WASL-Related High School Completion Programs in Washington State

The Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to “develop an estimate of the number of students statewide likely to participate in” high school completion programs authorized by 2007 legislation (HB 1051). Based on the most recent data available, up to 424 students in the class of 2008 would be eligible statewide. This report briefly reviews the methods used to develop this estimate.

Study Update: Evidence-Based Programs to Reduce Involvement in the Child Welfare System

The 2007 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to study programs and policies that show evidence of reduced involvement in the child welfare system. The study intends to provide the legislature with reliable estimates of the costs and benefits of evidence-based prevention and intervention programs; this update outlines our research steps.

Make It Happen!: Preliminary Report on College Summer Program for Youth in Foster Care

The Foster Care to College Partnership is a three-year collaboration among six agencies to improve high school graduation and college enrollment rates among foster youth. One of the major initiatives undertaken by the partnership is a four-day summer program to encourage post-secondary enrollment and persistence among youth in foster care.

This report presents information from surveys filled out by participants at the first three summer programs. These surveys show an increase in readiness to apply to college, knowledge of how to apply for financial aid and pay for college, and knowledge of college life. Later reports by the Institute will examine whether the program affects college enrollment and college persistence rates.

The Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Program: Three-Year Felony Recidivism and Cost Effectiveness

In 1999, legislation was passed to better identify and provide additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders who were released from prison, who pose a threat to public safety, and agree to participate in the program. A “Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender” (DMIO) is defined by the legislation as a person with a mental disorder who has been determined to be dangerous to self or others.

As part of its legislative mandate, the Institute has published a series of reports that evaluate the DMIO program. Reports published in 2005 and 2007 demonstrated that the DMIO program significantly reduced felony recidivism, and this 2008 follow-up report finds that reductions in felony recidivism were sustained at the 3-year mark. The benefit-cost analysis in this report indicates that the reductions in DMIO recidivism generated greater financial benefits than program costs.

Community Notification as Viewed by Washington's Citizens: A 10-Year Follow-Up

The 1990 Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of the Community Protection Act. As part of this evaluation, the Institute contracted in 1997 with the Social and Economic Sciences Research Center (SESRC) at Washington State University to conduct telephone interviews with a sample of Washington State residents regarding the community notification provisions of the Community Protection Act.

In 2007, the Institute again contracted with SESRC to conduct a nearly identical survey and learn how responses may have changed. The results from both surveys indicate that the vast majority of Washington State residents are familiar with Washington’s community notification law and consider the law very important.

Educational Attainment of Foster Children: 2006 Results

A 2001 report by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) reported the gap in standardized test scores between Washington State foster youth and non-foster youth. The analysis conducted in 2001 was based on statewide, norm-referenced assessment tests. In 2005, however, the state no longer required school districts to administer these tests, shifting instead to the criterion-based Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL). The Children’s Administration (DSHS) has asked to Institute to analyze WASL results for foster youth in 4th, 7th, and 10th grades. This report builds on previous work by the Institute analyzing the educational attainment of foster youth. In addition to comparing WASL results for foster and non-foster youth, we 1) analyze factors that influence the WASL test scores of foster youth, 2) describe the background of youth in foster care and analyze how these characteristics are related to their educational status, and 3) review relevant research findings and policy changes.

Assessing the Risk of Juvenile Sex Offenders Using the Intensive Parole Sex Offender Domain

The Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) within the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services contracted with the Institute to determine if an empirically valid risk assessment for sexual reoffending could be developed using data from the Intensive Parole Supervision Assessment (IPSA). This report summarizes our findings.

"Beating the Odds" on the WASL, Revisited: Identifying Consistently Successful—and Struggling—Schools

This report updates our effort to identify schools whose students performed above or below expectations on the WASL. To the spring 2006 WASL results we add another set of results, from spring 2007, to determine whether any schools beat the odds for two consecutive years. We also include 4th- and 7th-grade results to identify elementary and middle schools that beat the odds.

Who Stays and Who Leaves? A Profile of Adult Public Mental Health Consumers

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to, “conduct a longitudinal study of long-term [mental health] client outcomes to assess any changes in client status at two, five, and ten years.” Every year, the state’s public mental health system serves about 120,000 individuals. To follow changes over time, this paper focuses on a cohort of 39,039 adults who received public mental health services in January 2004. At the end of four years, mental health consumers were classified into those that 1) received services continually (every month), 2) regularly utilized mental health services (every quarter), 3) had intermittent use of mental health services (breaks longer than three months), and 4) clients who received services and did not return (“leavers”). Using administrative data, we looked at utilization patterns by demographics (age, region, and sex), previous utilization of mental health services, diagnoses, Medicaid eligibility, and functioning and impairment. After highlighting factors associated with service utilization, we outline future reports in this series that will address outcomes for public mental health consumers.

Risk Assessment Instruments to Predict Recidivism of Sex Offenders: Practices in Washington State

This paper reviews policies and practices regarding assessment of sex offenders for risk of reoffense among public agencies and private treatment providers in Washington State. Specifically, we reviewed the use of risk assessment instruments, which gauge the likelihood that individual sex offenders will reoffend.

We found that a diverse set of instruments are employed by public and private entities in making decisions about sex offenders. These decisions include sentencing, facility assignment, treatment, release, public notification, and community supervision. As expected, there was greater variability in risk assessment practices among private treatment providers than public agencies.

Racial Disproportionality in Washington State's Child Welfare System

The 2007 Legislature created the Racial Disproportionality Advisory Committee to study disproportion in Washington’s child welfare system, and directed the Institute to conduct analyses for the Committee. The initial analysis found that Indian, Black, and Hispanic children referred to Child Protective Services (CPS) in the 2004 study year were present in the system at rates greater than White children, and that Asian children were under-represented in the child welfare system. Further analysis determined that most of the disproportionality occurred at point of referral to CPS alleging abuse or neglect. Controlling for poverty, geography, age of the child, and other factors using regression analysis still indicated disproportionality at many points in the child welfare system.

Evidence-Based Programs to Prevent Children from Entering and Remaining in the Child Welfare System: Benefits and Costs for Washington

The 2007 Washington Legislature directed the Institute to estimate whether “evidence-based” programs and policies can “reduce the likelihood of children entering and remaining in the child welfare system, including both prevention and intervention programs.” In this report, we study three basic questions: Is there evidence that specific programs “work” to improve these outcomes? If so, do benefits outweigh program costs? Finally, what would be the total net gain to Washington if these evidence-based programs were implemented more widely?

To answer these questions, we systematically reviewed the “what works” literature regarding programs and policies that affect child welfare outcomes. We then estimated the monetary value of the benefits, including factors such as reduced child welfare system expenditures, reduced costs to the victims of child maltreatment, improved educational and labor market performance, and reduced crime-related costs.

Integrated Crisis Response Pilots: Preliminary Outcomes of Clients Admitted to Secure Detox

In 2006, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services established two pilot sites for the Integrated Crisis Response Program. At these sites, Designated Crisis Responders (DCR) investigate and have authority to detain individuals with serious mental illness or substance abuse problems. Elsewhere in the state, this function is conducted separately by mental health professionals and chemical dependency specialists. The pilots also created secure detox facilities to hold involuntarily detained individuals. This report describes outcomes of clients admitted to these secure detox facilities. Due to the preliminary nature of this study and the challenge of identifying an adequate comparison group, these findings should not be considered final.

Foster Care to College Mentoring Program: Preliminary Report

This report presents preliminary information on the implementation of the Foster Care to College (FCTC) mentoring program in Washington State. This pilot program, modeled on King County's Treehouse mentoring program for foster youth, expands the availability of education-focused mentoring to foster youth in all regions of the state.

This preliminary report reviews the background of the program, describes the program, discusses implementation issues experienced in the first 18 months of the program, and suggests potential program modifications.

September 15, 2008 Report to the Joint Task Force on Basic Education Finance

This report summarizes the four comprehensive funding options presented to the Task Force to date, including proposed timelines for phasing in new funding structures. This report also describes the methodology the Institute is developing to project impacts on student outcomes under alternative funding structures. A list of all the comprehensive proposals that were submitted can be found on the Task Force website.

Services for Youth Transitioning Out of Foster Care: Preliminary Report

An FY 09 proviso in the supplemental budget calls for the Institute to review state programs for youth transitioning out of foster care, and identify how well current services are meeting the needs of youth aging out of foster care to independence. In this preliminary report, we describe the activities the Institute is undertaking to conduct the analysis. The final report is due to be completed by December 31, 2008.

Washington's Public Mental Health System: Regional Needs and Approaches

In 2001, the Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to conduct a study of the long-term outcomes of the state’s more than 120,000 public mental health consumers. In Washington, community mental health services are overseen by 13 Regional Support Networks (RSNs) under contract with the state Division of Mental Health.

The purpose of this report is to examine regional variations—related to client characteristics, availability of services, patterns of service utilization, and the extent of evidence-based practices—and lay the groundwork for future analyses of long-term outcomes among adult consumers of mental health services in Washington State.

Adult Literacy Education Study—Revised December 2008

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy contracted with Berk & Associates to conduct a study of adult literacy rates and programs in Washington State, in response to a 2008 legislative directive “to study the status of adult literacy education in Washington.” The study includes “an analysis of literacy rates by county; a review of the research literature; a description of literacy-related services provided by state agencies and community-based organizations; and an analysis of characteristics of persons receiving those services."

Report to the Professional Educator Standards Board: Differential Pay for Teachers in High-Demand Subject Areas

In 2008, the Washington State Legislature passed ESHB 2687 which directed the Professional Educator Standards Board (PESB) to conduct “a comprehensive analysis of math and science teacher supply and demand…” In collaboration with the Institute, the PESB was to “provide information from a study of differential pay for teachers in high-demand subject areas such as mathematics and science, including the design, successes, and limitations of differential pay programs in other states.”

We reviewed the national research literature on whether differential pay for teachers in math, science, or other high-demand teaching fields affects whether new teachers are attracted to the profession, or whether the attrition rate of existing teachers is reduced. Existing research on this specific topic is too thin to draw conclusions because there have been very few attempts to offer differential pay and, as a result, evaluation evidence is sparse. We therefore examined the broader question of how salary increases—for all teachers—affect the degree to which teachers leave the profession. We found higher teacher salaries do reduce attrition rates; the magnitude of the effect can be summarized as: a 10 percent increase in teacher salaries leads to a two-to-three percent decrease in teacher attrition rates.

Foster Care to 21: Enrollment Trends After Two Years

The 2006 Legislature passed 2SHB 2002, which allows youth who are over the age of 18 and have completed their secondary school education to remain in a licensed care setting as they pursue postsecondary academic or vocational training. This program, commonly known as Foster Care to 21 (FC to 21), began enrollment in July 2006; enrollment ends December 31, 2008. The Institute was directed to evaluate the program. This preliminary report finds that of the 85 youth who enrolled in FC to 21 prior to 2008, 25 (29 percent) were still enrolled, 6 (7 percent) had turned 21 or had completed their postsecondary program, and 54 (64 percent) were no longer enrolled. Thirty-nine (46 percent) stayed in FC to 21 for at least one year.

Services for Youth Transitioning From Foster Care: Views of Foster Youth and Foster Parents

The 2008 Legislature included a budget proviso for the Institute to survey foster youth and foster parents about how well current services are meeting needs of youth aging out of foster care. Of the 169 foster youth surveyed, 84 percent believed they were very or somewhat prepared to live on their own. In contrast, only 46 percent of foster parents (out of 194 surveyed) rated their foster children in these categories. Foster youth and parents identified money, work, and housing as challenges for transitioning youth; needed services identified by both groups include continued state support, Independent and Transitional Living provider services, and improved preparation of foster youth through more classes and support.

Review of State Policies and Programs to Support Young People Transitioning Out of Foster Care

The 2008 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to “conduct a national review of state programs for youth transitioning out of foster care” (ESHB 2687, Sec. 610.12). The review was to include a survey of the 50 states and the District of Columbia that would focus on “eligibility requirements for continued foster care, age thresholds for transitioning services, types of services provided, and use of state funds to supplement federal” Chafee dollars. A contract to design the survey instrument and administer the survey was awarded to Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago. The results of that survey are presented in this report.

Monitoring Regulation and Enforcement Activities Associated With the Underground Construction Economy: Preliminary Report

In 2007, the Washington State Legislature enacted Senate Bill 5926 creating the Joint Task Force on the Underground Economy in the Construction Industry to “formulate a state policy to establish cohesion and transparency between state agencies so as to increase the oversight and regulation of the underground economy practices in the construction industry.” In addition, assisting in determining the extent of and costs associated with the underground construction economy, subsequent legislation in 2008 instructed the Institute to organize a committee to identify benchmarks to measure the effect of Task Force recommendations.

This preliminary report describes data (currently available or soon to be collected) that can be used to monitor the implementation of legislatively enacted policies associated with the Task Force’s recommendations. Because many of the activities enacted during the 2008 legislative session were not implemented until late summer or fall of 2008, the data presented here only represent a baseline against which to measure future outcomes. Data reflecting the first fiscal year of implementation will be available prior to the 2010 legislative session.

Evidence-Based Public Policy Options to Reduce Crime and Criminal Justice Costs: Implications in Washington State

In 2006, long-term forecasts indicated that Washington faced the need to construct several new prisons in the following two decades. Since new prisons are costly, the legislature directed the Institute to project whether there are “evidence-based” options that can reduce the future need for prison beds, save money for state and local taxpayers, and contribute to lower crime rates. As part of a systematic review of the research evidence, we found and analyzed 545 comparison-group evaluations of adult corrections, juvenile corrections, and prevention programs to determine what works, if anything, to reduce crime. We then estimated the benefits and costs of many of these evidence-based options and found that some evidence-based programs produce favorable returns on investment. This paper presents our findings and describes our meta-analytic and economic methods.

Final Report of the Joint Task Force on Basic Education Finance

The final report includes, among others, recommended levels of funding, compensation, and staffing; enhancements for special education, struggling students, and early learning; and direction on levy equalization, data reporting, and accountability and oversight. The report provides guidance on phase-in and projects the expected effect of the recommended investment.

The Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender Program: Four-Year Felony Recidivism and Cost Effectiveness

In 1999, legislation was passed to better identify and provide additional mental health treatment for mentally ill offenders who were released from prison, who pose a threat to public safety, and agree to participate in the program. A “Dangerous Mentally Ill Offender” (DMIO) is defined by the legislation as a person with a mental disorder who has been determined to be dangerous to self or others.

As part of its legislative mandate, the Institute has published a series of reports that evaluate the DMIO program. Reports published in 2005, 2007, and 2008 demonstrated that the DMIO program significantly reduced felony recidivism, and this 2009 follow-up report finds that reductions in felony recidivism were sustained at the 4-year mark. The benefit-cost analysis in this report indicates that the reductions in DMIO recidivism generated greater financial benefits than program costs—a ratio of approximately $1.64 in benefits for every public dollar spent.

Washington's Truancy Laws: School District Implementation and Costs

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the legislature to study implementation of the truancy laws in school districts and courts in the state. In this report, we focus on school district petition filing rates, factors that predict district filing rates, reasons for not filing petitions, the contempt process, and district costs for the court process. The findings are based on a statewide survey of school districts, Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) data, and analysis of court records.

The data reveal that, statewide, districts file truancy petitions for 32 percent of students who are legally eligible based on repeated unexcused absences. However, rates of filing vary widely among districts. Higher filing rates are predicted by smaller district size, lower percentage of minority students in the district, and a willingness on the part of the district to file a petition prior to the legal requirement. Statewide district costs for the truancy court process were estimated at $2.7 million annually. This figure is 1.5 times the $1.8 million allocated by the state in the 2007-08 school year.

New Risk Instrument for Offenders Improves Classification Decisions

The 1999 Offender Accountability Act (OAA) affects how the Department of Corrections (DOC) supervises convicted felony offenders in the community. The Institute was directed by the legislature to evaluate the OAA. The OAA requires DOC to supervise offenders according to their risk for future offending, which is estimated using instruments that classify offenders into groups with similar characteristics.

The Institute developed a "static risk" instrument, which DOC began using as part of its Risk Level Classification (RLC) system in 2008. This new system replaced DOC's previous Risk Management Identification (RMI) system, which had been in use since the OAA was implemented. Comparing recidivism rates of offenders classified under the new RLC and the old RMI systems, this report finds the new system to have better predictive accuracy than the prior system.

Increased Earned Release From Prison: Impacts of a 2003 Law on Recidivism and Crime Costs, Revised

The 2003 Washington State Legislature passed ESSB 5990, which increased “earned early release time” for certain types of offenders. The bill authorizes the Washington State Department of Corrections to release certain eligible offenders earlier if they have demonstrated good behavior in prison.

The Institute was directed by the Legislature to evaluate the effect of the 2003 law. Our overall recidivism findings remain consistent with those in the original November 2008 report; we strengthened the cost-benefit analysis for this revised version and find that the law generates benefits of $1.88 per dollar of cost.

The Costs and Frequency of Mental Health-Related Hospitalizations in Washington State Are Increasing

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to analyze the outcomes of public mental health consumers. This report examines the relationship between public mental health services and mental health-related hospitalizations and emergency departments. In 2007, one out of five adult hospital stays involved a mental health or substance abuse (MHSA) diagnosis in Washington State. A greater percentage of MHSA-related hospitalizations come from the emergency department and a disproportionate number are paid for by Medicare or Medicaid. Among Medicaid clients, those with frequent or high-cost emergency department visits are more likely to have an MHSA diagnosis. This report also explores the extent to which these clients may receive treatment from the public mental health system. Given the close relationship between these two systems, potential costs to public mental health and the state’s community hospitals should be evaluated as new mental health policies are considered and adopted in Washington State.

Independent and Transitional Living Skills Programs For Current and Former Foster Youth

The 2008 Legislature directed the Institute to collect information on how well current services are meeting the needs of youth aging out of foster care. A survey was conducted of Independent and Transitional Living Programs that provided services to foster youth as they prepared for and transitioned to independent living. During this year a total of $372,253 was distributed to the approximately 1,200 participating youth. Over 300 of this population received funds for housing support.

A Pilot Program for Evidence-Based Children's Mental Health Services: Characteristics of Participants Enrolled in Multi-Systemic Therapy

In 2007, by legislative direction, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services’ Mental Health Division established the Thurston-Mason Children’s Mental Health Evidence-Based Practice Pilot Project (the Pilot) to provide evidence-based mental health services to children. Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST) is the first evidence-based practice chosen for the Pilot. The Pilot enrolled 114 youth in MST between April 2007 and December 2008. The majority of these children (69 percent) were referred from the juvenile justice and public mental health systems; 14 percent were referred from the state’s child welfare system; the remaining referrals were from schools or other local partner agencies. The Legislature also directed the Institute to study the Pilot. Using linked administrative data from multiple state agencies, we produced a profile of the first 103 youth served by the program.

We found that 96 percent of youth enrolled in MST had prior involvement in at least one state system associated with juvenile justice, child welfare, or mental health; 70 percent of youth enrolled in MST had felony or misdemeanor convictions (50 percent had a history of detention); and 30 percent of enrolled youth had referrals to Child Protective Services that were accepted for investigation. Most (89 percent) youth enrolled in MST were previously enrolled in the public mental health system; the Pilot’s MST program is serving its target population. Subject to funding, a report on outcomes associated with enrollment in MST will be published in December 2009.

Does Sex Offender Registration and Notification Reduce Crime? A Systematic Review of the Research Literature

The Sex Offender Policy Board asked the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of sex offender registration and community notification laws on reducing crime. We conducted a systematic review of all research evidence and located nine rigorous evaluations. Some studies address whether the laws influence “specific” deterrence—the effect of a law on the recidivism rates of convicted sex offenders. The remaining studies analyze “general” deterrence—the effect of a law on sex offense rates of the general public, as well as recidivism rates of convicted sex offenders.

At this time, we tentatively conclude that existing research does not offer much policy guidance on the specific deterrent effect of registration/notification laws. For general deterrence, there is some indication that registration laws lower sex offense rates in the public at large. Additional research is necessary before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

Going Home: The Washington State Reentry Project
Interim Report: 18-Month Recidivism Rates for Program Participants

The Institute was contracted to evaluate the effectiveness of the Department of Corrections’ “Going Home Project.” The program was designed to transition younger, high-risk, violent offenders into the community. To date, not enough time has passed to conduct an outcome evaluation with a comparison group and 36-month follow-up. This interim report outlines our research design and provides 18-month recidivism rates for program participants.

What Works? Targeted Truancy and Dropout Programs in Middle and High School

The 2008 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate evidence-based intervention and prevention programs for truancy. Because truancy and school dropout are closely linked, we also examined dropout prevention programs. In this report, we investigated whether targeted school, court, and law enforcement programs for middle and high school students affect educational outcomes, including high school graduation, dropping out, achievement, and attendance. The results of 22 studies were aggregated, and effective program types are identified.

Truancy and Dropout Programs: Interventions By Washington's School Districts and Community Collaborations

This report describes attendance problems in Washington’s schools by identifying the rates of chronically truant students. These students may be the target of multiple school-based interventions, which are the focus of the current report. In 2008, the Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to survey truancy-specific intervention programs and services currently available in Washington’s school districts. Due to the close link between chronic truancy and dropping out, we investigated not only programs for students with specific attendance problems but also those for students at a larger risk of school failure. We also investigated several community-based collaborations that include school district partners and analyzed gaps in student access to existing school services.

Outcomes for Adult Public Mental Health Clients in Washington State: A Five-Year Longitudinal Analysis

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to “conduct a longitudinal study of long-term [mental health] client outcomes to assess any changes in client status at two, five, and ten years.” Every year, the state’s public mental health system serves about 120,000 individuals. To follow changes over time, this paper focuses on a cohort of 38,668 adults who received public mental health services in January 2004. At the end of five years, mental health consumers were classified into those who 1) received services continually (every month), 2) regularly utilized mental health services (every quarter), 3) had intermittent use of mental health services (breaks longer than three months), and 4) clients who received services and did not return (“leavers”). After profiling these four categories of clients, we examine outcomes for each related to employment, housing, hospitalizations, and involvement in the criminal justice system.

Outcomes of Referrals to Child Protective Services: Comparing Reporters

The 2008 Legislature directed the Office of the Family and Children's Ombudsman (OFCO) to analyze referrals of child abuse and neglect to find out whether the source of the referral influenced the response by the Child Protective Services (CPS) at the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS). OFCO contracted with the Institute to perform the study. We examined a total of 96,000 referrals made between January 2006 and February 2008 and found that educators and social services professionals make more reports to CPS than other types of reporters. Compared with other reporters, referrals from law enforcement were more likely to both be accepted for investigation and result in removal of a child from his or her home.

The study also found variations in the outcomes of referrals from the various types of reporters. The largest variations in outcomes were determined by DSHS region and the risk assignment history of individual intake workers. Intake workers with a history of assigning higher levels of risk than their peers were more likely to continue to assign higher levels of risk.

Washington State Institute for Public Policy: Origins and Governance

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy conducts non-partisan policy research for the state of Washington. Originally conceived in 1982, the organization’s governance structure and operating practices have evolved over time. This paper reviews the history of the Institute’s structure and mission.

Public Guardianship Services in Washington State: Pilot Program Implementation and Review

The 2007 Washington State Legislature established an Office of Public Guardianship within the Administrative Office of the Courts. The office is intended to “promote the availability of guardianship services for individuals who need them and for whom adequate services may otherwise be unavailable.” Public guardianship services are available in six pilot counties throughout Washington State. By June 2009, 71 cases had been referred to public guardians. This report summarizes detailed assessments and discusses the implementation of the public guardianship pilot program.

The Legislature also directed the Institute to “analyze the costs and off-setting savings to the state from the delivery of public guardianship services.” The Institute’s final evaluation report (December 2011) will analyze the benefits and costs of the pilot program.

Washington's Truancy Laws in the Juvenile Courts: Wide Variation in Implementation and Costs

The 2008 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to investigate the ways schools and courts are implementing the truancy provisions of the Becca Bill. In this report, we describe the various ways the courts have chosen to process truancy cases. We estimate the costs of these interventions to courts and local governments were $15.4 million for the 2007–09 biennium; the average cost per case statewide is $475 (in 2007 dollars).

Outpatient Treatment for Children Served in Washington's Public Mental Health System: Usage Patterns and Outcomes

The 2001 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to “conduct a longitudinal study of long-term [mental health] client outcomes to assess any changes in client status at two, five and ten years.”

For this report, we followed 30,055 youth who received individual or family therapy in 2004. We looked at the most significant episode of treatment during the youth’s entire treatment history and found that 17 percent had “one-time” episodes lasting fewer than 30 days, 48 percent had short-term episodes lasting fewer than six months, 10 percent had an episode of intermediate duration (six to 12 months), and 25 percent had a long-term episode lasting longer than 12 months.

Among youth in public mental health care in Washington, 8 percent were in a foster placement following treatment (compared with 1.3 percent of the state population), 10 percent had a criminal conviction in the year following treatment (compared with 2.2 percent of the general population), and less than half (47 percent) of 18-year olds had any paid employment (compared with 88 percent of all 18-year-olds).

Children and Adults With Developmental Disabilities: Services in Washington, Research Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the 2008 Washington Legislature to estimate the effectiveness, costs, and benefits of programs for individuals with developmental disabilities (excluding special education).

We reviewed the research literature to find the best available evidence on the economic impacts of services for individuals with developmental disabilities and found that residential services in the community for similar groups of adults with developmental disabilities cost less on average than institutional care. In some research, supported employment increases clients’ wage earnings and taxes paid, with a reduction in public costs. Several programs have demonstrated positive impacts on various life outcomes.

Impacts of Housing Supports: Persons with Mental Illness and Ex-Offenders

After the 2009 Legislative session, the Institute was asked to participate in a Housing Focus Group, and provide a summary of research findings on the effectiveness of housing programs for populations at risk of homelessness. In this report, we examine the impact of housing supports for persons with mental illness and for ex-offenders returning to the community following incarceration.

In this initial review of the literature, we found:

• Housing assistance for persons with mental illness significantly reduced homelessness, hospitalization, and crime when compared to similar individuals who did not participate in a housing program.

• Reentry programs that included housing support for the general population of ex-offenders did not affect the incidence of recidivism.

• Reentry programs for serious violent ex-offenders significantly reduced recidivism.

Graduation and Dropout Outcomes for Children in State Care (2005—2008)

The report represents the latest analysis in an ongoing study to investigate educational outcomes for foster youth. While the Institute has conducted previous analyses on the educational attainment of foster youth, this is this first report to compare these outcomes using the standard, federal definitions of dropout and graduation rates. Based on this methodology, we found:

• Approximately 70 percent of high school students in Washington State graduate on time. About 30-40 percent of foster youth in placement for at least half of the school year graduate after four years in high school.

• The statewide annual dropout rate for high schoolers in Washington State ranges between 5 and 6 percent. Between 8 and 13 percent of foster youth with a long-term (full-year) placement drop out of high school.

• Foster youth with longer-term placements (360 days or more during the school year) have lower dropout rates and higher graduation rates compared with foster youth with short-term placements during high school.

Long-Term Disability Benefits of Members of the Public Employee, Teacher, and School Employee Retirement Systems

The 2009 Legislature directed the Institute to study the disability benefits provided to members of Plans 2 and 3 of the state’s Public Employees’, Teachers’, and School Employees’ Retirement Systems (PERS, TRS, and SERS), and to examine options to improve coverage.

Due to the structure of these pension plans, disability retirement benefits for some Plan members may be considerably smaller than benefits provided to similar employees in other retirement systems. The average disability retirement pension of Plans 2 and 3 members is $369 per month. Eligibility for other income replacement sources, such as workers compensation and long-term disability (LTD) insurance, has considerable influence on the financial status of a Plan member who retires early due to disability. A 50-year-old Plan 2 member with pre-disability earnings of $4,000 a month would collect from $384 to about $3,200 per month, depending on his or her eligibility for other disability benefits. At greatest risk of receiving the low disability benefit are plan members (1) who are under the age of 55 and with fewer than 30 years of service, (2) experiencing non-duty disabilities that do not meet Social Security disability standards, and (3) who have inadequate or no LTD insurance benefits.

The report provides a range of options to improve the availability and level of disability benefits for members of Plans 2 and 3.

Providing Evidence-Based Programs With Fidelity in Washington State Juvenile Courts: Cost Analysis

The Washington State Legislature has been funding evidence-based programs in the Washington State juvenile courts since 1999. In 2009, the Legislature directed the Institute to “conduct an analysis of the costs per participant of evidence-based programs by the juvenile courts.” This report provides estimated costs per participant for these evidence-based programs:

Aggression Replacement Training (ART)
Coordination of Services (COS)
Functional Family Therapy (FFT)
Family Integrated Transitions (FIT)
Multi-Systemic Therapy (MST)

The statewide average costs can be used to estimate the number of youth who can be served by these programs for a given amount of funding.

Return on (Taxpayer) Investment: Evidence-Based Prevention and Intervention—Initial Report to the Legislature on Study Design—

The 2009 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy “to calculate the return on investment to taxpayers from evidence-based prevention and intervention programs and policies.”

This short report summarizes the four-step approach the Institute is taking to this assignment.

First, we describe how we assess research evidence from throughout the United States to determine what works and what does not.
Second, we indicate how we calculate costs and benefits for Washington.
Third, we briefly discuss our procedures to provide a “portfolio-level” analysis on how a set of policy options could affect the statewide outcomes identified by the Legislature.
Fourth, we describe our approach to testing the uncertainty in our conclusions.

Foster Care to College Partnership: Evaluation of Education Outcomes for Foster Youth

The Foster Care to College Partnership (FCTCP) was a three-year foundation-funded initiative led by six different state and community agencies in Washington State. The aim of the FCTCP was to increase the high school graduation and college attendance rate for youth aging out of foster care.

Foster Care to College partners implemented an educational campaign (including a website, direct mail, and local seminars) to encourage youth to attend college and provide information and resources to foster students and their families. In addition, FCTCP agencies established a statewide volunteer mentor program and summer college assistance workshop for foster youth.

As part of the FCTCP initiative, the Institute was asked to evaluate the effectiveness of these activities. This report includes the results of this evaluation. We found that compared to similar youth in foster care, foster students who participated in FCTCP programs were significantly more likely to graduate from high school and attend the first year of college. While high school completion and college enrollment rates for this population are still low, this research shows that these programs hold promise in improving the educational outcomes for youth in foster care.

General Assistance Programs for Unemployable Adults

The 2009 Legislature directed the Institute to review state general assistance programs and to identify “promising approaches that both improve client outcomes and reduce state costs.” General Assistance-Unemployable (GA-U) is a state-funded program that provides cash and medical assistance to adults with temporary incapacities (for example, an illness) that prevent them from working. Nineteen states (including Washington) operate GA-U programs. Research evidence suggests that client and taxpayer finance outcomes can be improved by providing treatment services to individuals diagnosed with mental illness or substance abuse disorders. These services are appropriate for many GA-U clients.

Personal Hygiene and Cleaning Supplies: Options to Increase Access and Availability for Low-Income People in Washington State

This paper examines existing public and private programs that provide personal hygiene and cleaning supplies to low-income populations.

Based on interviews with knowledgeable people, three principal options are identified if the legislature chooses to increase access and availability. A hybrid approach is possible, as the options are not mutually exclusive: 1) Establish a benefit card or voucher program for personal hygiene and cleaning supplies; 2) Allocate additional support services’ funds to cover personal hygiene and cleaning products for recipients of TANF; and 3) Use existing governmental purchasing contracts to allow more community organizations to purchase products at lower negotiated prices.

Washington's Offender Accountability Act: Final Report on Recidivism Outcomes

The 1999 Offender Accountability Act (OAA) directs the Department of Corrections (DOC) to perform a formal assessment of each offender’s risk for recidivism and then to allocate agency resources accordingly. The law also requires the Institute to evaluate the OAA and provide results by 2010.

This report presents our findings on whether the OAA has had an effect on recidivism. On average, offenders today have a greater risk for recidivism than historically; the general rise in recidivism over the last 20 years is largely explained by the increased underlying risk of DOC’s offender population. Since the OAA was implemented, however, something favorable has happened to cause recidivism rates to be lower than expected. Unfortunately, our statistical analysis does not allow us to identify whether this beneficial change can be attributed specifically to the OAA or other policies, or other unknown factors that occurred during the same time period. Regardless, the good news from our evaluation is that, after at least a decade of increasing recidivism, Washington is now beginning to observe improvements in adult felony recidivism.

Foster Youth Transitions to Independence: Options to Improve Program Efficiencies

The 2009 Legislature directed the Institute to “evaluate the adequacy of and access to financial aid and independent living programs for youth in foster care. The examination shall include opportunities to improve efficiencies within these programs.” In the past decade, the number of programs focused on Washington foster youth transitioning to adulthood has grown from three to 15. We estimate that 3,365 youth accessed one or more of these programs in 2009—roughly 60 percent of those eligible for the state’s Independent Living program (for foster youth ages 15 to 21). In this report, we review the research evidence on Independent Living programs.

In Fiscal Year 2009, approximately $3,300 per youth was spent on foster youth transition programs. Over $11 million in total was spent on these programs; the state spent close to $5 million. Almost half the state funding went toward housing programs, over a quarter toward college preparation and student financial aid, nearly a fifth toward health insurance, and 5 percent toward helping youth finish high school.

In Washington, 34 percent of students in foster care graduate on-time from high school, compared with 71 percent of their non-foster peers. We recommend the legislature consider reallocating funding to help more foster youth finish high school. The 2009 legislation (HB 2106) directing performance contracts for child welfare services offers an opportunity to consolidate foster youth transition services into the smallest number of contracts and emphasize key outcome measures.

Extending Foster Care to Age 21:
Measuring Costs and Benefits in Washington State

In 2006, the Washington State Legislature passed 2SHB 2002, which allowed up to 50 youth (per year) to remain in a foster care placement until they reached age 21. In order to be eligible for an extended foster care placement, youth in the Foster Care to 21 program must be enrolled in a post-high school academic or vocational program.

The 2006 Legislature also directed the Institute to “conduct a study measuring outcomes for foster youth who have received continued support,” and “include measurements of any savings to the state and local government.” This evaluation compares outcomes for Foster Care to 21 participants with a matched group of foster youth who completed high school before the program was available. Based on this analysis, we found that youth enrolled in Foster Care to 21 attended college for a longer period in the first two years after high school graduation, received food stamps for fewer total months, and were less likely to be arrested for a misdemeanor or felony crime. Positive outcomes associated with Foster Care to 21 saved taxpayers $1.35 for every dollar spent on the program, according to our estimates.

Washington's Truancy Laws: Does the Petition Process Influence School and Crime Outcomes?

In 2008, the Legislature directed the Institute to study the truancy provisions of the 1995 "Becca Bill." The bill changed several aspects of the compulsory school attendance laws in Washington. In particular, the bill requires that school districts file truancy petitions in juvenile court when students accumulate a specified number of unexcused absences.

From a policy standpoint, it is of interest to know whether the Becca truancy laws have had a causal impact on key student outcomes, such as graduation rates.

Unfortunately, despite our best attempt to analyze this question with rigorous statistical methods, we cannot provide a scientific answer as to whether the law is having a positive, negative, or no effect on student outcomes. Sometimes research can provide answers to central questions, and sometimes it cannot; this is a case of the latter.

The 1995 Becca laws were implemented statewide and a random assignment study—the type of study offering the best scientific evidence—was never possible or envisioned. In addition, the historical data available for our study do not allow us to measure a vital aspect of the Becca laws: the number of unexcused absences from school. Without this information, it is impossible to employ appropriate statistical methods to study the question of the Becca Bill’s effectiveness.

We do know from our analysis that students who receive truancy petitions are at very high risk of academic failure as well as future criminal involvement. For example, of all students in Washington during the 2002–03 school year, only 20 percent of students with petitions graduated from high school by 2008, compared with 77 percent of their non-petitioned peers. Similarly, 20 percent of the students with petitions were subsequently convicted of a crime in Washington compared to 4 percent of students without petitions.

Our inability to analyze the effectiveness of the Becca Bill stems from that fact that, even before their truancy filing, petitioned students were already at much higher risk for negative outcomes. For example, prior to receiving the truancy filing, petitioned youth had a GPA of just 1.3, compared with a GPA of 2.7 for non-petitioned students. And, prior to the filing, 31 percent of the petitioned students had previously been convicted of a crime compared with 8 percent of non petitioned students.

Given these differences, and without additional information, it is not possible to identify an appropriate comparison group with which to judge—in a scientifically rigorous way—whether the Becca Bill has had the effects the Legislature intended.

Fight Crime and Save Money: Development of an Investment Tool for States to Study Sentencing and Corrections Public Policy Options —Progress Report—

Can knowledge about “what works” to reduce crime be used to help a state achieve a win-win outcome of: (1) lower crime, and (2) lower taxpayer spending? This progress report describes the work underway by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to develop an analytical tool for Washington, and perhaps other states, to identify evidence-based policy options to reduce crime rates and lower the taxpayer costs of the criminal justice system.

The Pew Charitable Trusts contracted with WSIPP to: (1) develop the tool, (2) apply it to the policy process currently underway in Washington State, and (3) help Pew make the tool available to other states.

This progress report describes the structure of the tool being constructed. The current plan calls for initial estimates by August 2010. In addition, the tool will be used to support the work of the legislatively directed study being conducted by the Washington State Sentencing Guidelines Commission.

Education Advocacy for Foster Youth in Washington State

Washington State’s Education Advocacy Program (EAP) helps over 2,000 foster youth annually to resolve problems in school. EAP coordinators provide direct advocacy, working with school staff to address issues such as youth academic performance. The coordinators also consult with foster youth, caregivers, and social workers to help youth and their caregivers advocate for themselves in the K—12 system. The EAP also provides information and referrals to local resources.

The EAP is structured around four goals: 1) improved access to services, 2) youth stay enrolled in school and improve attendance, 3) youth maintain academic progress, and 4) the reduction of school disciplinary actions. Of EAP youth who received direct advocacy or consultation services in 2007—08 and 2008—09, over half sought to improve access to services—often special education—and over a quarter worked to maintain school enrollment or academic progress. Approximately one-fifth of EAP youth addressed more than one goal.

This report describes factors—youth characteristics and foster care placement history—that influence which goals youth address in the EAP. Using statistical analyses, we found that boys were more likely than girls to address school discipline, and that the more time youth spent in foster care, the more likely they were to seek help to improve access to services. We also identified regional differences in which goals EAP youth addressed. We do not know whether regional differences were due to variation in youth issues, local practices, or both.

How Are the Experiences of Foster Youth in Washington State Related to WASL Assessments? 2008 Results

This report examines results from the Washington Assessment of Student Learning (WASL) for foster students completing this test in 2005 and 2008. For this study, we follow two cohorts of foster youth and analyze changes in assessment scores between 4th and 7th grades and 7th and 10th grades.

Overall, the “met standard” rates for foster youth completing the WASL are between 15 and 30 percentage points lower than for other students. Foster youth, however, have much higher rates of grade retention, school mobility, and other factors associated with poor test scores. As this analysis shows, a student’s previous test scores remain the strongest predictor of future assessment results. Between 69 and 77 percent of foster youth who took the math WASL in 2005 and 2008 failed to meet standards in both years (40 percent did not meet reading standards for both tests).

About half of foster youth who completed the WASL in 2008 were not in foster care three years earlier. Youth in care typically come into the child welfare system with educational deficits. Across all students, foster youth scored in the 29th and 23rd percentile on the reading and math WASL, respectively. Given the size of these gaps, even successful interventions are unlikely to bring educational outcomes to the student average (50th percentile). We found that for younger students, the number of months in foster care was associated with modest gains in WASL scores. The greatest improvements in WASL scores occurred for students in foster placements lasting between 20 and 22 months.

Washington's General Assistance—Unemployable Program: Caseload Trends

General Assistance-Unemployable (GA-U) is a Washington State-funded program that provides cash grants and medical benefits to adults who have temporary incapacities that prevent them from working. The GA-U caseload has increased from about 10,000 individuals in 1998 to over 16,000 in 2009. As of April 2009, the caseload was forecast to continue growing to over 20,000 people by 2013. Since about 2003, the GA-U caseload has risen faster than the state population and appears to correlate with growth in the number of adults in poverty and without health insurance.

In 2010, the GA-U was renamed the “Disability Lifeline Program.” The Disability Lifeline Program is similar to GA-U in most eligibility rules and benefits, except that the Disability Lifeline Program has a time limit during which individuals can receive benefits (up to 24 months within a five-year period). In the 2010 legislation that created the Disability Lifeline Program, the Institute was directed to “analyze the experiences of persons who have been terminated from disability lifeline benefits” due to time limits or other reasons. The Institute will track the number of former benefit recipients who transitioned to SSI benefits or became employed, in addition to other outcomes. This report is due in December, 2012.

WSIPP’s Benefit-Cost Tool for States: Examining Policy Options in Sentencing and Corrections

Can knowledge about “what works” to reduce crime be used to help states achieve a win-win outcome of lower crime and lower taxpayer spending?

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy has constructed an analytical tool for the Washington legislature to help identify evidence-based sentencing and programming policy options to reduce crime and taxpayer criminal justice costs. With additional financial assistance from the MacArthur Foundation, The Pew Charitable Trusts contracted with WSIPP to: (1) develop the tool, (2) apply it to a policy process currently underway in Washington State, and (3) help Pew make the tool available to other interested states.

This report describes the tool (as of August 2010) in detail and illustrates its use by applying it to two hypothetical sentencing policy options in Washington State. The tool assesses benefits, costs, and risks. Results from the two hypothetical examples point to possible win-win policy combinations.

Factors Related to Employment and Housing Outcomes of Public Mental Health Consumers in Washington State

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the 2001 Washington State Legislature to “conduct a longitudinal study of long-term [mental health] client outcomes to assess any changes in client status at two, five, and ten years.” This latest report discusses supported employment and housing outcomes for public mental health consumers in Washington State.

For this analysis, we selected all adults who received public mental health services in 2006. We then analyzed all service episodes for these individuals between 2002 and 2007. Based on these records, we examined how employment and housing outcomes related to treatment patterns. According to this analysis, and a review of national literature:

Employment history, diagnosis, and functioning all predict likelihood of employment after treatment.
Earnings levels for employed adults remain low; eligibility guidelines for benefit programs (such as SSI) may also constrain employment decisions.
Supported employment and permanent supportive housing programs can improve outcomes for consumers, if implemented according to recommended guidelines.

Return on (Taxpayer) Investment: Evidence-Based Options to Improve Statewide Outcomes—Update for the Legislature—

The 2009 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy “to calculate the return on investment to taxpayers from evidence-based prevention and intervention programs and policies.” This report summarizes the Institute’s four-step research approach for this project and lists the topics being reviewed as well as Institute staff contacts for each area. Initial findings will be presented prior to the 2011 Legislative Session, with a full report due June 2011.

High School Graduation and Dropout Trends for Washington State Foster Youth (2005–2009)

This report includes updated statistics on high school graduation and dropout rates for foster youth in Washington State. Since 2005, the graduation rate for all students in Washington State has ranged between 70 and 75 percent. For students in foster care, graduation rates vary between 32 and 44%. While these rates are significantly below other students, graduation numbers for foster youth have improved in each of the last three years. However, graduation levels for foster youth lag behind other disadvantaged groups, such as low-income, special education, and migrant students. In the 2008–09 school year, 12% of foster youth dropped out of high school, a rate more than twice as high as the statewide dropout rate (5%).

Long-Term Disability Benefits of Members of the Public Employee, Teacher, and School Employee Retirement Systems: Follow-up Study

In 2009, the Legislature directed the Institute to study and make recommendations regarding disability benefits available to members of Washington State’s Public Employees’, Teachers’, and School Employees’ Retirement Systems (Plans 2/3).

This follow-up report summarizes the findings and recommendations of the 2009 Institute report and describes implementation efforts of the Health Care Authority regarding enhanced education, changes to Public Employees Benefits Board (PEBB) long-term disability (LTD) products, and their investigation of new LTD products; describes statutory changes and fiscal impacts associated with providing enhanced disability benefits to Plans 2/3 members; and discusses policy advantages and disadvantages for insurance and pension options.

Washington State Juvenile Court Funding:
Applying Research in a Public Policy Setting

During the last 15 years, the Washington State Legislature has taken a number of steps to develop an “evidence-based” juvenile justice system. The central concept has been to identify and implement strategies shown—through rigorous research—to reduce crime cost-effectively. In 2009, the Legislature turned its attention to the mechanism through which Washington’s 33 juvenile courts receive state dollars. The Institute was directed to report on the administration of the new funding mechanism. We also summarize key policy reforms over the past 15 years that have established an emphasis on providing evidence-based programs in Washington’s juvenile justice system.

Washington State Recidivism Trends: Adult Offenders Released From Prison (1990 – 2006)

In this report, we examine recidivism rates for close to 70,000 adult offenders who released from prison in Washington State over a 17-year-period. Our analysis reveals quite notable and favorable recidivism trends.

ITA Investigations: Can Standardized Assessment Instruments Assist in Decision Making?

In Washington State, specialized investigators, called Designated Mental Health Professionals (DMHPs), are responsible for determining if individuals can be committed for 72 hours under the state’s Involuntary Treatment Act (ITA). The criteria established under the ITA statute (RCW 71.05) allow individuals to be involuntary detained to a psychiatric facility if, as a result of a mental disorder, the individual is gravely disabled or presents a substantial risk of serious harm to him or herself or others.

A DMHP relies on both professional judgment and historical case records to determine the extent to which an individual may pose a risk. While protocols have been adopted for ITA investigations, at present, DMHPs do not use a standardized risk assessment instrument to determine the level of danger an individual may pose.

This report reviews both mental health and risk assessment instruments that potentially could be utilized in an ITA investigation. None of the risk instruments discussed here, however, have been validated for use within the general population. While we could not identify suitable instruments for ITA investigations within the research literature, other measures are discussed which may assist a DMHP in the investigation process. These options include expanded access to criminal records and centralized access to previous mental health investigation and commitment data.

Depression in Washington's Female TANF Population: Prevalence, DSHS Screening, and Treatment

Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) is a federal/state program providing cash assistance to families with children. In Washington, the TANF program is administered by the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS). The 2007 Legislature directed the Institute to study the prevalence of depression among women receiving TANF and to evaluate the effectiveness of current screening methods used by the DSHS.

A random sample of 707 women receiving TANF in February 2008 was interviewed by telephone using a well-validated survey instrument to diagnose major depressive disorder (MDD). Compared with a national sample of depressed women with children, we found that women receiving TANF were more likely to be depressed and their depression was twice as likely to be categorized as severe. Depressed TANF clients were also significantly more likely to receive professional treatment for their condition.

Compared with non-depressed TANF clients, those with MDD were employed less and received TANF longer in the nine-month follow-up period. Depression was not associated with TANF sanction, either at the time of sampling or during the follow-up period.

DSHS has implemented screening procedures that identify a substantial portion of depressed TANF clients. To the extent the state wishes to increase treatment rates, DSHS could modify its Comprehensive Evaluation to include one of several brief, freely available mental health screening instruments.

Family Team Decision-Making: Does it Reduce Racial Disproportionality in Washington's Child Welfare System?

Washington’s Children’s Administration uses Family Team Decision Making (FTDM) meetings to involve parents and other family members, the child (when appropriate), friends, foster parents, caseworkers, and other professionals. Ideally, FTDM meetings are held for all decisions involving child removal, change of placement, and reunification or other permanency plan. In 2008, DSHS convened 6,600 FTDM meetings regarding nearly 8,000 children.

An earlier Institute study demonstrated over-representation of Indian, Black and Latino children in Washington’s child welfare system. Following referrals to Child Protective Services (CPS), Indian and Black children (but not Asian or Latino children) were more likely to be placed in foster care, and to remain in care significantly longer than White children. In 2009, the Legislature directed the Institute to study the effects of the implementation of FTDM on racial disproportionality.

When we studied outcomes for the child welfare caseload statewide, we found that FTDM had no effect on out-of-home placement, time to permanency, or new referrals to CPS.

When we examined outcomes by racial groups, however, we found three positive results for FTDM. 1) Latino children experienced decreased rates of placement. 2) Asian children achieved permanency more quickly than those in non-FTDM offices. 3) Black children exiting to permanency were less likely to be the alleged victims of new accepted CPS referrals.

With the exception of these three favorable results, FTDM as implemented in Washington did not affect disproportionality for Indian or Black children with respect to placement in foster care or time to permanency.

The Economic Value of Learning Time in K-12 Schools: A Summary of Research Evidence and an Economic Analysis

The research literature reveals a relatively small, positive impact on student outcomes resulting from a longer school year. When benefits are measured in terms of the labor market earnings gained from improved test scores, we find that increases to instructional time outweigh the cost of providing that instruction.

Medicaid Cost Containment Options for Washington State

The 2010 Washington State Legislature funded a study to examine options to contain costs in the state Medicaid program. Following a competitive bid, George Washington University was selected as the contractor. They found that small numbers of users account for most fee-for-service spending for inpatient and outpatient services. Options to reduce short-term costs include reducing reimbursement, placing restrictions on benefits, and instituting cost-sharing for beneficiaries. Long-term solutions require concentrated, coordinated care management for high-use, high-cost Medicaid beneficiaries and strategic approaches to reform the service delivery system, with accompanying payment reform to incentivize change.

Multisystemic Therapy Outcomes in an Evidence-Based Practice Pilot

In 2007, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services established the Thurston-Mason Children’s Mental Health Evidence-Based Practice Pilot Project (Pilot) to provide mental health services to children. The first evidence-based practice selected by the Pilot was Multisystemic Therapy (MST), an intensive family- and community-based treatment program for youth. Over a one-year follow-up period, the Institute examined criminal convictions of youth enrolled in the Pilot’s MST program. Compared to youth with similar criminal histories and demographic characteristics, MST youth were convicted of fewer crimes on average. Due to sample size, statistical significance was not attained in this evaluation of MST outcomes. The effect sizes observed, however, are within the expected range for MST according to other rigorous studies of that intervention and would likely return a net economic benefit to tax payers and crime victims.

Competency to Stand Trial and Conditional Release Evaluations: Current and Potential Role of Forensic Assessment Instruments

In response to a 2010 legislative direction, the Institute and DSHS are investigating options regarding the use of mental health assessment tools for two DSHS reports to the courts:

- Competency to stand trial assessments of criminal defendants whose competency is in question, and

- The Secretary’s recommendations to the courts concerning the potential conditional release of criminally insane patients from inpatient treatment.

This document summarizes results of an October 2010 survey of state forensic evaluators concerning their use of assessment instruments. Thirty-one (of the 35) mental health experts who conduct forensic evaluations for the three state psychiatric hospitals (Western State, Eastern State, and Child Study and Treatment Center) responded to the online survey; this represents an 89 percent response rate.

We present three options for assessment strategies and instruments, with advantages and disadvantages of each option. A detailed comparison of instruments is included.

Structured Decision Making Risk Assessment: Does it Reduce Racial Disproportionality in Washington's Child Welfare System?

In 2008, an Institute study found that American Indian, Black, and Latino children were more likely to have referrals to Washington’s Child Protective Services (CPS) than White children. Following referrals to CPS, American Indian and Black children (but not Asian or Latino children) were more likely to be placed and remain in foster care significantly longer than White children. In 2009, the Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to examine whether DSHS’s recent adoption of the Structured Decision Making (SDM) risk assessment tool affected racial disproportionality in the foster care system. SDM is used as part of CPS investigations to classify families on their risk of further child maltreatment.

Our analysis took advantage of the fact that DSHS began using SDM statewide in October 2007. We compare rates of placement and re-referral to CPS for children with referrals in 2008 to children with referrals before SDM was implemented.

Disproportionality after CPS referral varied markedly from year to year for Black children. Some of the variation can be explained by annual differences in rates of referral. However, analyses that controlled for referral rates still revealed year-to-year differences in rates of out-of-home placement for Black children. We are unable to explain these yearly fluctuations.

When our analysis combined children of all races, we observed no effect of SDM on out-of-home placements or new referrals to CPS. We also analyzed outcomes for each race separately. For White, American Indian, Asian, and Latino children, we found no effect of SDM on placements or new CPS referrals. For Black children—but not for any other race/ethnicity—we observed a significant increase in the rate of out-of-home placements in 2008. We cannot be certain that the SDM risk assessment was the cause of the differences in 2008; differences may also be the product of the largely unexplained year-to-year fluctuations in disproportionality for Black children.

As implemented in Washington State, the SDM risk assessment did not reduce disproportionality after CPS referral for either Black or American Indian children.

Integrated Crisis Response Pilots: Long-Term Outcomes of Clients Admitted to Secure Detox

In 2006, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services established two pilot sites for the Integrated Crisis Response Program. At these sites, Designated Crisis Responders (DCR) investigate and have authority to detain individuals with serious mental illness or substance abuse problems. Elsewhere in the state, this function is conducted separately by mental health professionals and chemical dependency specialists. The pilots also created secure detox facilities to hold involuntarily detained individuals. This report describes the 18-mounth outcomes of nearly 1,000 individuals admitted to these secure detox facilities from May 2006 through October 2007. Outcomes examined include psychiatric hospitalization, substance abuse treatment, emergency department utilization, employment, arrests, and mortality.

Post-Release Controls for Sex Offenders in the U.S. and UK

Published as:

Lieb, R., Kemshall, H., & Thomas, T. (2011). Post-release controls for sex offenders in the U.S. and UK. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 34, 226-232. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2011.04.006

In recent years, both the United States and United Kingdom have developed numerous innovations in legal efforts to protect society from sex offenders. Each country has adopted special provisions for sex offenders. In particular, governments have focused on forms of social control after release from incarceration and probation. These policy innovations for this category of offenders have been more far reaching than those for any other offender population. The two jurisdictions have adopted policies with similar goals, but the selected strategies have important differences. Generally speaking, the U.S. has favored an ever-expanding set of policies that place sex offenders into broad categories, with few opportunities that distinguish the appropriate responses for individual offenders. The UK government observed the proliferation of Megan’s Laws in the U.S., and deliberately chose to establish carefully controlled releases of information, primarily relying on governmental agencies to work in multi-disciplinary groups and make case-specific decisions about individual offenders. Although the UK policy leaders expressed significant concern that the public’s response to knowing about identified sex offenders living in the community would result in vigilantism, to date the results have not born out this fear. Both governments have turned to other crime control measures such as polygraphy testing, electronic monitoring, and civil protection orders as a means to prevent further sexual violence.

Return on Investment: Evidence-Based Options to Improve Statewide Outcomes - July 2011 Update -

The 2009 Washington Legislature directed the Institute to “calculate the return on investment to taxpayers from evidence-based prevention and intervention programs and policies.” The Legislature instructed the Institute to produce “a comprehensive list of programs and policies that improve . . . outcomes for children and adults in Washington and result in more cost-efficient use of public resources.” The Legislature authorized the Institute to receive outside funding for this project; the MacArthur Foundation supported 80 percent of the work and the Legislature funded the other 20 percent. This main report summarizes our findings. Readers can download the two detailed technical appendices for in depth results and statistical methods.

Inpatient Psychiatric Capacity in Washington State: Assessing Future Needs and Impacts (Part One)

In 2010, the Washington State Legislature amended the legal guidelines for Involuntary Treatment Act (ITA) commitments to allow a Designated Mental Health Professional (DMHP) to more fully consider reasonably available information about individuals from credible witnesses and historical records (RCW 71.05.212). These statutory changes will take effect in 2012. The Legislature directed the Institute to assess the potential impact of these changes.

This paper discusses trends in both the utilization of inpatient psychiatric treatment beds and changes in the capacity of these facilities to admit patients. To assess potential increases in psychiatric admissions as a result of this law, we conducted a survey that asked DMHPs to review ITA cases during a one-week period in 2010. Based on this survey, we estimate that the commitment rate could increase from 40 percent to between 45 and 55 percent of all investigations as a result of the statutory changes. Between 42 and 168 additional psychiatric beds (above current capacity) would be necessary to accommodate this growth in admissions.

Inpatient Psychiatric Capacity in Washington State: Assessing Future Needs and Impacts (Part Two)

In 2012, recent amendments to Washington State’s Involuntary Treatment Act (ITA) will take effect. New legal guidelines will allow a designated investigator to more fully consider information from both credible witnesses and historical records when making commitment decisions. The 2010 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to estimate the number of additional psychiatric admissions that may occur as a result of this law and examine how many inpatient psychiatric beds may be necessary to accommodate this increase. These estimates were presented in a companion to this report (completed in July 2011).

This report outlines various approaches for addressing the projected increase in psychiatric admissions. First, we discuss options for developing additional capacity within the state’s inpatient psychiatric system. Next, we highlight both programmatic and statutory alternatives that may help prevent (or divert) future psychiatric admissions. This section also summarizes laws from four different states that provide for alternatives to involuntary inpatient admissions. Finally, this report examines the relationship between ITA-related psychiatric admissions and utilization of both county jails and hospital emergency departments.

"What Works" in Community Supervision: Interim Report

The Department of Corrections contracted with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to examine effective community supervision practices of offenders. In this interim report, we provide background information on community supervision as it is delivered in Washington. We also summarize our findings to date on our systematic review of the literature regarding “what works” for community supervision.

How Does Washington State's Learning Assistance Program Impact Student Outcomes? Preliminary Results

Washington’s Learning Assistance Program (LAP) provides funding to school districts for supplemental services for K–12 students at-risk of not meeting state standards in reading and math. The state Quality Education Council (QEC), which makes recommendations to the legislature regarding basic education, requested that the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) collaborate with the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) on a study that measures the impact of LAP on student achievement.

This study is being conducted in two phases: (1) statistical analysis of the association between LAP funding and student outcomes; and (2) site visits at schools that provide LAP-funded services. This report describes preliminary results from the statistical analysis, focusing on elementary school student test scores. The final report, due September 1, 2012, will examine other grade levels and outcome measures.

This report was revised January, 2012, to include an executive summary.

Assessing the Potential Need for Public Guardianship Services in Washington State

In 2007, the Washington State Legislature passed Substitute Senate Bill 5320, establishing an Office of Public Guardianship (OPG) within the Administrative Office of the Courts. This new pilot program provides state-paid guardians for legally incapacitated individuals in cases where a volunteer guardian was unavailable and the individual lacks financial resources.

The pilot program started in five counties throughout Washington State, and now provides services in ten counties. While a limited number of incapacitated individuals were served during this pilot period, initial estimates (completed in 2005) found that 4,500 individuals may be eligible for a public guardian in Washington. This estimate, however, was based on research conducted over 20 years ago in different states.

This report uses two different sources – 2009 census data, and a 2011 survey of care providers – to estimate the need for public guardianships services in Washington State. Based on this analysis, we found that between 4,000 and 5,000 individuals may be potentially qualify for a public guardian. The need for these services is also classified according to region and type of care setting.

Public Guardianship in Washington State: Costs and Benefits

Guardians are court-appointed legal representatives who have the authority to make personal, medical, and financial decisions on behalf of incapacitated individuals. Washington State implemented a pilot program in 2007 to provide public (state-paid) guardianship services for individuals whose family members were unable to serve as a guardian, or the individual did not have financial resources to pay for a guardian.

This evaluation examines program outcomes and cost effectiveness for clients served by public guardians between 2008 and mid-2011. Our analysis over this period found the following:

• Average residential costs per client decreased by $8,131 over the 30-month study period. The average cost for providing a public guardian was $7,907 per client during that time.

• Personal care decreased by an average of 29 hours per month for public guardianship clients, compared with an increase in care hours for similar clients.

• One in five public guardianship clients showed improvements in self-sufficiency during the study.

This report discusses the characteristics and outcomes of public guardianship clients and presents related research on outcomes for public guardianship programs outside Washington State. While we found positive results for public guardianship clients in this evaluation, without a randomly assigned control group (that did not receive services), it is difficult to determine the extent to which public guardians may have contributed to these outcomes.

Educational Advocates for Foster Youth in Washington State: Program Background and Trends

Since 2006, over 3,500 students in foster care have received assistance from an Educational Advocacy Coordinator. The Educational Advocacy program was started in order to help foster youth maintain enrollment, connect to school services, and progress academically. The program was first implemented in King County in 2001. Treehouse, the non-profit agency that developed the program model, now manages the statewide program under contract with the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS). This includes training advocates, screening referrals, tracking outcomes, and developing instructional material for social workers, caregivers, and educators.

The 2011 Legislature directed the Institute to “examine the child welfare and educational characteristics for foster youth who are served by educational advocates.” During the 2009–10 school year, advocates spent nearly 8,200 hours assisting youth in foster care. This report describes the background and characteristics of those students served by advocates. We also examine placement mobility and school changes as well other educational outcomes (i.e. grade point average and graduation rate). Our final evaluation report in October 2012 will address the overall effectiveness of the program

Transforming Child Welfare in Washington State: Performance-Based Contracting

The 2009 Washington State Legislature passed Second Substitute House Bill 2106, requiring the Children’s Administration of the Department of Social and Health Services to:

• Convert existing contracts with service providers to performance-based contracts and reduce the overall number of contracts; and

• Set up two demonstration sites to compare child welfare case management by private agencies with child welfare case management by DSHS employees.

The legislation also established the Child Welfare Transformation Design Committee to advise DSHS in this effort. The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) was directed to report on the transition to performance-based contracts and, in 2015, evaluate the outcomes of case management performed by private agencies compared with that of DSHS employees.

This initial report to the legislature and governor provides a brief description of the legislation and an overview of the progress to date in converting and consolidating CA contracts. The Institute will provide a final report on performance-based contracts in June 2012, and an evaluation report of the demonstration project in April 2015.

Preliminary Report: Did Expanding Eligibility for the Family Caregiver Support Program Reduce the Use of Long-Term Care?

A family caregiver voluntarily cares for a parent, spouse, partner, or another adult relative or friend. The assistance that family caregivers provide may allow care recipients to remain at home rather than in long-term care. The Family Caregiver Support Program (FCSP) at the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) provides resources and services to unpaid family caregivers in Washington State. In concert with the state’s 13 Area Agencies on Aging, the FCSP provides information and outreach; screening, assessment, consultation, coordination of services, and caregiver support services and resources. The program directly served 5,800 caregivers in fiscal year (FY) 2011. For fiscal year 2012, the legislature increased funding for FCSP to expand in-depth services to more caregivers. The legislature also directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to work with DSHS to establish and review outcome measures associated with the FCSP expansion. The goal of the study is to assess whether the expansion of this program delays entry of care recipients into Medicaid-paid long-term care. This report gives a brief description of the program and outlines the approach to evaluation. A final report will be published by August 30, 2012

Return on Investment: Evidence-Based Options to Improve Statewide Outcomes
April 2012 Update

The 2009 Washington Legislature directed the Institute to “calculate the return on investment to taxpayers from evidence-based prevention and intervention programs and policies.” The Legislature instructed the Institute to produce “a comprehensive list of programs and policies that improve . . . outcomes for children and adults in Washington and result in more cost-efficient use of public resources.” This report summarizes our findings as of April 2012. Readers can download the technical appendix for details about our methods.

Teacher Compensation and Training Policies: Impacts on Student Outcomes

Washington State’s Quality Education Council (QEC) was created by the legislature to make recommendations regarding basic education policy and finance. The legislature also directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to provide research support to the QEC. This report summarizes six research reviews of the impacts of teacher compensation and training policies on student outcomes (measured by test scores).

Independent Youth Housing Program for Former Foster Youth: Outcomes for Participants

The Independent Youth Housing Program (IYHP) was created in 2007 by Washington’s legislature to provide housing assistance and case management for former foster youth ages 18 to 23. In the current biennium, $1,800,000 is budgeted for IYHP.

The legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to conduct a study measuring outcomes for youth participating in IYHP. For this study, we identified former foster youth who received IYHP during fiscal year 2010 and looked at their use of state-paid services, and arrests and employment during fiscal year 2011.

Confinement for Technical Violations of Community Supervision: Is There an Effect on Felony Recidivism?

The Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC) has jurisdiction over offenders when a superior court orders community supervision. While on supervision, offenders must adhere to conditions such as reporting regularly to their Community Corrections Officer (CCO). If conditions are violated, DOC may impose sanctions ranging from reprimands to confinement. Between fiscal years 2002 and 2008, approximately 72 percent of all offenders who had a violation received confinement as a sanction.

We investigate whether the use of confinement—as a sanction for a violation—has an impact on recidivism.

How Does Washington State's Learning Assistance Program Impact Student Outcomes? Final Report

Washington State provides supplemental funding to school districts through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP) to help students at-risk of not meeting state learning standards. The state Quality Education Council (QEC) makes recommendations to the legislature regarding basic education, including LAP. The QEC requested that the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) study the impact of LAP-funded remediation strategies on student achievement.

The Institute published a preliminary report in December 2011, finding that the state’s K–12 data system does not reliably identify which students receive LAP-funded services. In response, the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) modified district reporting requirements to ensure that LAP students will be identified in state data from 2011-12 and beyond.

This final Institute report describes how LAP is implemented in Washington State, and presents results from a school-level analysis of the association between LAP and student outcomes.

K-12 Education Spending and Student Outcomes: A Review of the Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy updated its findings on a key public policy question for the Washington State legislature: does spending more money on the K–12 school system lead to better student outcomes? To investigate, we conducted a systematic review of research by analyzing all scientifically rigorous studies we could find on the topic.

DSHS Special Commitment Center: Population Forecast, Revised

In 2010, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed to study the commitment of sexually violent predators to the Special Commitment Center. The study assignment concentrated on two topics: a population forecast, as well as issues related to treatment participation and less restrictive alternatives.

This first report of two examines the projected future demand for the Special Commitment Center. The second report, which will be published by the end of December 2012, examines residents’ participation in treatment, the annual review process, and the capacity and future demand for less restrictive alternatives.

Did Expanding Eligibility for the Family Caregiver Support Program Pay for Itself by Reducing the Use of Medicaid-Paid Long-Term Care?

Washington’s Family Caregiver Support Program (FCSP) provides a comprehensive array of information, resources and services to unpaid family caregivers caring for adults with functional disabilities. One objective of this program is to delay or avoid placement of the care recipient in long-term care. To expand the program to serve more caregivers, the 2011 Legislature increased funding for the FCSP by $3.45 million for fiscal year 2012. The additional funding was based on assumed savings associated with delayed or avoided placements into more costly Medicaid-paid long-term care (LTC). The legislature also directed the Institute to assess whether the expansion of this program delayed or reduced entry of care recipients into LTC and thereby reduced LTC costs.

The short legislative timeline for this study precluded a comprehensive evaluation. Nonetheless, based on the limited data available, we report two preliminary results. First, we observed a significant delay in the use of LTC by those served during the expansion. Second, we estimate that the maximum savings possible from the expansion would have been $1.67 million in the first year. Since $3.45 million was budgeted for the FCSP expansion, it appears unlikely that the expansion would have been cost neutral, at least in the first year, as assumed in the budget.

We recommend that a longer term evaluation of the expansion be conducted to determine if benefits match cost over an extended period.

Educational Advocates for Foster Youth in Washington State: Program Impacts and Outcomes

Educational Advocates work with schools, social workers, foster families and students to help youth in foster care succeed in school. Advocates were initially available to assist foster students in King County. In 2006, the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) started a statewide Educational Advocacy program for foster youth in need of educational assistance.

The 2011 Washington State Legislature directed the Institute to “examine the child welfare and educational characteristics and outcomes for foster youth who are served by educational advocates.” This report includes the results of the evaluation

Chemical Dependency Treatment for Offenders: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Findings

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the 2012 Legislature to review whether chemical dependency treatment in the adult and juvenile justice systems reduces crime and substance abuse. The Institute was also asked to estimate the monetary benefits and costs of these programs.

We conducted a systematic review of research studies to determine if, on average, these programs have been shown to reduce crime. To narrow our review of this vast literature, we focused on the type of chemical dependency programs funded by Washington taxpayers.

We located 55 unique studies with sufficient research rigor to include in our review. Programs for adult offenders have been evaluated more frequently than for juveniles. Of the 55 studies, 45 evaluated treatments delivered to adults while only 10 were for juveniles.

Our findings indicate a variety of chemical dependency treatments are effective at reducing crime. Recidivism is reduced by 4-9%. Some programs also have benefits that substantially exceed costs.

We found that community case management for adult substance abusers has a larger effect when coupled with “swift and certain.” This finding is consistent with an emerging trend in the criminal justice literature—that swiftness and certainty of punishment has a larger deterrent effect than the severity of punishment.

State Need Grant: Student Profiles and Outcomes

Students who are state residents and have family incomes at or below 70% of the state’s median family income may receive a State Need Grant to pay for the costs of undergraduate tuition. During the 2011–12 academic year, nearly 75,000 students received this grant. In the last 10 years, state spending on this grant program has increased 120% (from $121 million in 2002–03 to $267 million in 2011–12). A sharp increase in the cost of tuition at undergraduate institutions coupled with a growing student population has led to this rise in program expenditures. While the program has historically been able to serve all students who qualify, in recent years, about 30,000 eligible students have been unable to receive a grant.

The 2012 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to “determine whether the funding for the State Need Grant has been utilized in the most efficient way possible to maximize the enrollment and degree attainment of low-income students.” This report is the first of two detailed analyses on the characteristics and outcomes of State Need Grant students. Descriptive information in this report includes profiles of State Need Grant students, data related to college affordability, enrollment outcomes for State Need Grant students, and a comparison of need-based aid policies in selected states.

Our final report (due December 2013) will evaluate the impact of the State Need Grant program on enrollment and degree completion outcomes, after considering other factors related to student performance.

Passport to College Promise: College Assistance and Support for Former Foster Youth

Washington State’s Passport to College Promise program (Passport) was created in 2007 to increase post-secondary educational outcomes for former foster youth. Passport consists of three components: 1) pre-college preparation provided to high school-age foster youth; 2) a scholarship for former foster youth attending eligible in-state schools; and 3) academic and support services from Designated Support Staff at participating colleges.

Washington is one of only two states that provide these kinds of “wraparound” services in addition to financial aid for former foster youth attending college. In this evaluation of the program, we compared outcomes for Passport students relative to common college performance benchmarks: retention, persistence, and completion. About two-thirds of Passport students remained enrolled for more than six months during their first year. These students had retention and completion outcomes similar to other (non-foster) students. Several recommendations for program improvement are also provided based on interviews with program staff and a review of available data.

Educational Outcomes of Foster Youth--Benchmarks

The Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) Children’s Administration (CA) asked the Institute to develop outcome measures to establish how the educational prospects of foster students have changed over time. This report includes detailed definitions and results on four long-term measures related to the educational status of youth in foster care. These measures include:

School retention: Nine out of ten foster youth re-enroll in the following school year.
Behind grade level: 8% of foster youth are behind their expected grade level.
Adjusted cohort graduation rate: Over a four-year period, the longitudinal graduation rate for youth in long-term foster care was between 45 and 55%.
Annual graduation rate: Measured on an annual basis, the graduation rate for foster youth was 47%.

For each measure, results for foster youth were compared to other students in Washington State. These measures will also be updated in the future to assess improvements.

Retiree Benefits in Public Pension Systems

The 2012 Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate three topics related to public pension policies: benefit levels, portability, and excess compensation. The Institute consulted with the Office of the State Actuary, Department of Retirement Systems, and local government plan sponsors in conducting this study. We surveyed public pension plans in the 50 states to compare benefit levels. We also analyzed state data on recent retirees in Washington State to examine overtime and excess compensation. Finally, we contracted with a professional actuary who has expertise in public employee retirement systems to review our methods and findings. This report summarizes our findings.

Special Commitment Center for Sexually Violent Predators: Potential Paths toward Less Restrictive Alternatives

Washington State law provides for indefinite civil commitment of persons found to meet criteria as sexually violent predators (SVPs). The Special Commitment Center (SCC) on McNeil Island houses persons who are detained and/or committed as SVPs. The Institute was directed to study several aspects of SCC. Major findings include:

Releases: As of CY 2012, 86 residents have been released from SCC.

Treatment: 37% of residents actively participate in sex offense treatment.

Annual Reviews: A survey of legal practitioners revealed concerns about the timeliness of reviews, with mixed reports regarding the quality.

Senior Clinical Team: SCC’s group of senior clinicians and managers plays a key role in residents’ treatment progression and decision-making regarding readiness for a less restrictive alternative. Some practitioners in the legal community expressed confusion and/or concern about the team’s role.

Less Restrictive Alternatives: Confinement at the state’s Secure Community Transition facilities costs significantly more than confinement at the main facility.

The report includes a response from the Special Commitment Center.

Revised on 1/28/2013 to modify Exhibits 1 and 17.

What Works to Reduce Recidivism by Domestic Violence Offenders?

The 2012 Legislature directed the Institute, in collaboration with the Washington State Gender and Justice Commission and experts on domestic violence, to update its analysis of the literature on domestic violence (DV) treatment. We were also directed to 1) report on other treatments and programs for DV offenders and the general offender population; 2) survey other states to study how misdemeanor and felony domestic violence cases are handled; and 3) report recidivism rates for DV offenders in Washington. This first report summarizes our findings regarding DV treatment and other programs and treatments.

Standardizing Protocols for Treatment to Restore Competency to Stand Trial: Interventions and Clinically Appropriate Time Periods

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) was directed by the 2012 Legislature to “study and report to the legislature the benefit of standardizing treatment protocols used for restoring competency to stand trial in Washington, and during what clinically appropriate time period said treatment might be expected to be effective.”

To conduct this work, the Institute contracted with a national expert in the field, Dr. Patricia Zapf. This report provides background on the types of interventions (treatments) used throughout the United States for the restoration of competency to stand trial, and research regarding the timelines for restoration. In addition, data on length of stay at Eastern State Hospital and Western State Hospital for incompetent defendants remanded for competence restoration are summarized.

K-12 Class Size Reductions and Student Outcomes: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis

The Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) to develop “a repository of research and evaluations of the cost-benefits of various K–12 educational programs and services.”

In this report, we analyze a significant policy question for the legislature: do the benefits of reducing the number of students in K-12 classrooms outweigh the costs?

Bright Futures Guidelines and Washington State Medical Assistance Programs, Revised

The 2012 Legislature directed the Institute to assess the costs and benefits of implementing the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Bright Futures Guidelines for well-child visits and developmental screening in medical assistance programs. Currently, federal regulations require non-grandfathered private health plans to comply with Bright Futures, but state Medicaid programs can choose whether to implement the guidelines or not.

We analyzed Washington Medicaid eligibility, claims and encounter data to assess the likely cost of providing additional well-child visits and developmental screening. We reviewed the literature to examine potential effects on health and other outcomes. We elicited advice from clinical experts and reviewed coverage in other state Medicaid programs and private health insurers.

The Center for Evidence-based Policy (CEbP) at the Oregon Health & Sciences University assisted the Institute by searching for studies that examined (a) the effects of additional well-child visits and developmental screening on outcomes for children and (b) the effectiveness of speech and language interventions. Links to the CEbP reports are provided.

Revised on 1/28/2013 to modify the discussion of developmental screens on p. 17.

Wildfire Suppression Cost Study

The 2012 Washington State Legislature appropriated funding to conduct a detailed analysis of potential mechanisms for reducing the amount of and variation in the state’s fire suppression costs. The desired analysis consists of two parts:

An examination of Oregon’s excess forest fire suppression cost insurance program and an analysis of the potential application of this model for Washington, and
An examination of Washington’s total and marginal costs related to staffing and overtime to determine whether these total or marginal costs are in excess of market rates.

Based on this direction, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) developed a scope of work that incorporated the legislature’s objectives to address two issues: the variability in wildfire suppression budget requirements and fire suppression labor costs. After a competitive selection process, WSIPP contracted with FCS GROUP to conduct the analysis, and the FCS GROUP team worked primarily with the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) to gather data and information. In addition, FCS GROUP held discussions with key external DNR stakeholders such as the Washington Forest Protection Association, Farm Forestry Association and Weyerhaeuser, and conducted a comparative analysis of how similar programs in Oregon, Idaho, Montana, South Dakota, British Columbia, and the United States Forest Service funded and managed their fire suppression expenditures. This report details this analysis and presents findings from FCS.

For more information, please contact John Bauer at (360) 586-2783, or bauerj@wsipp.wa.gov.

Sewage Sludge Disposal and Utilization Study

This report looks at the use of municipal sewage sludge on land as a means of transforming an unpleasant and sometimes harmful waste into a natural resource.

Possible Alternative Uses of UI Trust Funds: A Survey of Recent State Initiatives

This report surveys the reemployment initiatives currently in place in about a dozen states. Since these state programs do not occur in a vacuum, also reviewed are relevant federal programs and demonstration projects, as well as selected foreign government initiatives. These initiatives tend to fall into the following categories: (1) enhanced job search assistance, (2) classroom training, (3) on-the-job training and wage subsidies, (4) relocation allowances, (5) reemployment bonuses, and (6) self-employment programs.

Increasing Higher Education's Contribution to Economic Development in Washington

This report analyzes the relationship between higher education and economic development and discusses ways in which the contributions of higher education to Washington’s economy can be increased.

Regional Long Waves of Economic Development: Trends in the Washington Economy

Like national and world economies, a regional economy goes through long waves of economic activity. Specifically, a region will experience a relatively lengthy period of economic growth close to or above the national rate followed by a relatively lengthy period of economic growth below the national rate. This research applies a regional long wave theory of economic development to the Washington State economy to explain recent changes in its structure and rate of growth and to predict its probably future course.

Alternative Onsite Sewage Disposal Technology: A Review

In 1988, nearly 30 percent of the homes in Washington depended on onsite wastewater treatment and disposal. It was estimated that up to one-half of all septic systems did not perform satisfactorily, or fail entirely within their expected life. This study discusses research on alternative onsite sewage disposal technologies and alternative onsite policy in Washington State.

Women, Work and Public Assistance

This paper looks at the process of entering employment for women who are on public assistance or who are at risk of receiving public assistance. Family Income Study data were used to investigate the labor market status and movement between different labor market states for the two sample groups.

Becoming Poor: The Dynamics of Female Poverty in Washington State

This report examines the dynamics of poverty for women in Washington State. Data from the Family Income Study are used to investigate why women become poor, why some stay poor, and what allows some to escape poverty altogether.

Adult Sex Offender Registration in Washington State: Initial Compliance, 1990

This report examines early compliance of adult sex offenders with a new registration requirement enacted as part of the Community Protection Act of 1990 (Chapter 3, Laws of 1990). The analysis compared Washington State Patrol records of registered adult sex offenders as of November 9, 1990, with records of sex offenders released from correctional or mental health institutions, or sentenced to supervision, on or after the effective date of the law.

Washington State Public Works' Procurement: Existing Statutes Versus Modern Practices

Leaving Public Assistance in Washington State

Many factors contribute to the processes by which women in Washington State leave public assistance. Longitudinal data from the Family Income Study provide information on the patterns of public assistance use and the reasons why women leave public assistance.

The Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative: A Study of Decision-Making and Recidivism

This study identified demographic, offense, and criminal justice system factors that contribute to the decision to grant Washington State's Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative (SSOSA) to certain eligible sex offenders and not to others who are eligible. Comparative rates of recidivism (rearrest and reconviction) for those who did and did not receive this sentence option were also analyzed.

Juvenile Sex Offenders: A Follow-Up Study of Reoffense Behavior

Presented in this report are the results of a follow-up study of 197 male juvenile sex offenders who participated in offense-specific treatment at any of ten project sites in 1984, and who were subjects in a previous study of short-term treatment outcomes. Extensive case-level data were collected on each offender during the previous study. These data provided a rich base of descriptive information on the characteristics of juvenile sex offenders, their offenses, their victims, their involvement in treatment, their prognosis, and their juvenile reoffense behavior during a short follow-up period.

Data Collection Coordination for the Education and Well-Being of Washington State Children: Actions and Future Option

Washington State Senate Bill 5474 created an interagency task force to examine data collection efforts related to the education and well-being of children. Task force members represented legislative staff; key state agencies involved with data collection and with children's programs; and the associations of school directors, school administrators, cities, and counties. The Washington State Institute for Public Policy provided the staff support for the task force. The task force's primary purpose was to determine ways to provide aggregated program data on children, using school district boundaries as the mechanism for sorting the information.

Does Washington Attract Welfare Recipients From Other States?

Policymakers in some states are considering limiting public assistance grants for applicants who have recently migrated from states that offer lower monthly grants. This policy change reflects the belief that states offering higher monthly grants attract welfare recipients. In January 1992, Washingtons maximum AFDC benefit for a family of three ranked 10th highest out of the 50 states. When compared with neighboring states, Washington has a higher public assistance grant amount than Oregon, Idaho, and Montana, and a lower grant amount than California. Apart from California, eight additional states pay higher grants than Washington. We get migrants from these states as well.

Does Public Assistance Encourage Women to Have More Children?

Most states increase the monthly public assistance grant when a new baby is born into the household. Recently, policymakers in some states have either eliminated, or proposed to eliminate, the grant increase. These changes in public assistance policy are based on the belief that the structure of grant payments may provide an economic incentive for women on public assistance to have more children.

Child Care Use in Public Assistance Households

This paper uses Family Income Study data to examine child care use among public assistance households and a comparison group of households at risk of receiving assistance in 1988. To illustrate more current child care patterns, we describe child care use of those households from the original 1988 public assistance sample that also received public assistance in 1991.

Who Is On Public Assistance?

This information on public assistance households is from the Family Income Study, a five-year longitudinal survey of persons receiving, or at risk of receiving, public assistance. The study was requested by the 1987 Legislature.

Public Assistance and Income: Changes Over Time

By looking at the changing economic circumstances of Washington families over a four-year period, we found changes in annual family income to be common. Such changes in income are called "income mobility." Over the period we studied, increases in family incomes were more common than decreases; national studies have reported similar findings. Our state's longitudinal study, the Family Income Study, allows us to see income mobility over four years (1988-1991) among low-income families in Washington State.

Washington State Sex Offenders: Costs of Sentencing Options

Policy debates regarding sentencing for sex offenders frequently focus on recidivism rates and treatment techniques. This paper addresses the financial aspects of sentencing, comparing the costs of three sentencing options in Washington State.

What Are the Differences Between Short-Term and Long-Term Welfare Users?

The majority of women who receive AFDC are short-term assistance users and leave AFDC within two years. Long-term users of public assistance, however, present a dilemma to both state and national policymakers in terms of cost and perceived "welfare dependency." The federal Family Support Act and its Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) program now directs states to focus upon education, training, job search, and job development activities for potential long-term users of AFDC. Using five years of Family Income Study data, this study compared the characteristics of short-term and long-term users of AFDC in Washington State during the period of 1988-1992.

Pathways to Employment

Employment was emphasized as a major pathway off welfare in the federal reform of the AFDC program. For this report, five years of Family Income Study data were analyzed to determine which factors affected the likelihood of employment for women who received public assistance.

Recidivism: The Effect of Incarceration and Length of Time Served

The effect of prison or jail sentences on recidivism is an important issue to those concerned with public safety and the cost-effectiveness of putting convicted offenders in prison. This paper summarizes theories and empirical studies on the effect of sentencing on recidivism. Study findings indicate that for some offenders, incarceration and longer confinement seem to increase the risk of recidivism. For other offenders, the likelihood of re-offense will either be unaffected or reduced by longer terms of incarceration. Furthermore, early-release programs do not appear to affect overall recidivism rates.

Female Sex Offenders in Washington State

This report reviews the literature regarding female sex offenders, and examines the characteristics of convicted female sex offenders in Washington State. Research literature indicates that the prevalence of sex offenses committed by females is relatively low, partly because of underreporting.

Over Half of the Women on Public Assistance in Washington State Reported Physical or Sexual Abuse as Adults

In the fifth annual Family Income Study interview administered in 1992, women were asked if they had been physically or sexually abused as adults. Physical abuse of women by spouses occurs at least once in 20 to 30 percent of households nationwide. National research on the sexual abuse of adult women is scarce; however, studies indicate that at least 20 percent of women have experienced sexual abuse and assault at least once during their lifetime. This issue brief specifically addresses physical and sexual abuse of women on public assistance as adults. Family Income Study survey findings show an alarmingly high rate of physical and sexual abuse of women on public assistance in Washington State. Over half of the women surveyed reported being physically and/or sexually abused as adults. The majority of those who reported being sexually abused also reported being physically abused by a spouse or boyfriend.

Child Abuse, Teenage Pregnancy, and Welfare Dependency: Is There a Link?

A recent study conducted in Washington State of young women who were pregnant or parenting teens found that 66 percent of the young women surveyed who became pregnant as teenagers were sexually abused (Boyer and Fine 1992). The high rate of abuse found in this study prompted new questions, relating to physical and sexual abuse, to be asked in the Family Income Study's fifth year interviews of public assistance and at risk comparison samples. This paper reports on findings concerning the physical and sexual abuse of women on public assistance in Washington State while they were growing up. Sexual abuse in the Family Income Study questionnaire was defined as: unwanted touching, sexual assault, or rape by a family member or others. Physical abuse was defined as: being hit, kicked, punched, or beaten up, other than the occasional spanking, by parents or guardians.

Dropping Out of School, Teenage Pregnancy, and Public Assistance,

Previous Family Income Study research indicates that dropping out of school before graduating, and being a teenage mother, are factors related to low educational attainment and welfare dependency. This issue brief describes the sequence of dropping out of school, and becoming pregnant for the first time, for women on public assistance.

Washington's Community Notification Law: A Survey of Law Enforcement

Washington State's 1990 Community Protection Act requires released sex offenders to register with the sheriff in their county of residence within 24 hours of release. In addition, the Act expressly authorizes law enforcement agencies to notify the public when a sex offender with a high risk of reoffense settles in the community. This law, called "community notification," was the first of its kind in the country. In March 1993, the Institute surveyed sheriffs in all 39 counties and the chiefs of police in the ten largest cities regarding their use of the community notification law.

At What Hourly Wage Are Women Able to Leave and Stay Off Public Assistance?

Previous Family Income Study research found that more women left public assistance due to employment than for any other reason and that most exits from assistance were temporary, not long term. This issue brief discusses the hourly wages of women who left public assistance due to employment and the percent who were able to stay off assistance for at least 36 months.

Adult Sex Offender Recidivism: A Review of Studies

Sex offenders may re-offend, even after they have been convicted and imprisoned. This conduct is known as recidivism. Research on sex offender recidivism can help the public and policymakers understand the risks posed by convicted sex offenders. This paper summarizes the major research findings related to sex offender recidivism.

Washington's Educational Service Districts: Design for an Evaluation

The 1993 Washington Legislature, in ESHB 1211, directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to develop "....recommendations for the design of a comprehensive study of the role and performance of educational service districts." This report, submitted to the Education Committees of the Washington State Senate and House of Representatives, presents recommendations to assess the role and performance of Educational Service Districts (ESDs) in Washington's K-12 education system.

A Comparative Study of Juvenile Sex Offenders and Non-Sex Offenders

Presented in this report are the findings of a study that compares the background characteristics and offense behavior of a group of juveniles who have been convicted of at least one sex offense to a group of delinquent offenders who have never been convicted of a sex offense.

Preliminary Recidivism Rates: The Twin Rivers Sex Offender Treatment Program (Revised)

This study is a preliminary estimate of the recidivism rates of sex offenders who have completed the Sex Offender Treatment Program (SOTP) at the Washington State Department of Corrections’ Twin Rivers Corrections Center. Estimated recidivism rates of these offenders are compared with the rates of a group of released sex offenders who did not receive sex offender treatment during incarceration.

Five Welfare-to-Work Approaches That Worked

This brief is a review of five welfare-to-work approaches that proved beneficial to welfare recipients.

Welfare Reform Notes: Disappointing Early Results From the "New Chance" Demonstration

New Chance was a national demonstration program that targeted young women who received welfare. Participants were 16 to 22 years old, gave birth as teenagers, and were high school dropouts. Immediate objectives were to increase educational attainment, increase contraceptive use, and improve parenting skills. Long-term objectives were to increase employment and decrease welfare use. The evaluation of New Chance was conducted by Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC). Women in the experimental and control groups were interviewed at 18 months after entering the program. The findings presented here summarize the results of the 18-month follow-up.

Welfare Reform Notes: Riverside County GAIN Program Achieves Best Results Yet for Large Welfare Reform Demonstration

The Riverside GAIN program, one of the six counties in the experimental evaluation of California's Greater Avenues for Independence (GAIN) program, had the best results to date for a large welfare-to-work demonstration program. GAIN was evaluated by the Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation (MDRC) over a 36-month follow-up period. The findings presented here summarize these results.

Juvenile Offenders: What Works? A Summary of Research Findings

This document can assist policymakers in understanding the major research findings in juvenile delinquency. It summarizes key findings and offers an overview of various topics, including: juvenile delinquency risk factors, program effectiveness, juvenile detention, and delinquency prevention.

A Summary of State Trends in Juvenile Justice

The 1994 Legislature determined that Washington's juvenile justice system requires "substantial revision," and created a legislative task force to review the system. To assist in this endeavor, the Institute reviewed the major trends in the nation regarding juvenile justice.

Outcomes in Special Education: What We Know and How We Could Know More

At legislative direction in the 1994 Supplemental Appropriations Act, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy is assessing the feasibility of doing a longitudinal study of educational outcomes for students in special education. A longitudinal study allows the tracking of a population over some period of time in order to document changes in that population. Conducting such a study in the field of K-12 education will be complicated and costly. In Washington State, we have had only limited experience with this approach. This report provides a summary of what is known from the research literature on outcomes for special education students who graduate from high school in the U.S. and in Washington State.

A Review of Federal and State Laws Addressing the Education of Children with Disabilities

This reviews examines the federal legislation established to provide federal financial assistance programs to assist states in educating children with disabilities. Federal law requires the state to assure that school districts evaluate each identified child to determine eligibility for special education, provide appropriate special education services to children with disabilities, establish due process procedures to help parents and students get the appropriate special education services, and perform some administrative functions for special education programs. The main differences between federal and state requirements are that the state defines specific eligibility criteria for each disability category and requires the evaluation to identify a child's disability within one of the disability categories. The state constitution, as interpreted by the Washington State Supreme Court in 1978, requires the state to define and fully fund basic education. Through legislative definition, special education is part of the state's basic education responsibility.

A Review of Federal Law Addressing the Education of Children with Disabilities

This review presents the historical development of federal legislation that addresses the education of children with disabilities. Additionally, it presents the federal requirements the state must meet when delivering and funding special education programs under the federal constitution, current federal statutes, regulations and selected court cases.

A Review of Current State Law Addressing the Education of Children with Disabilities

This review examines the requirements the state must meet for the delivery and the funding of special education under the state law governing the education of children with disabilities.

Are Women on Welfare Different From Women Who Are "Working Poor?"

The Family Income Study is a five-year longitudinal study of Washington households. We compared the characteristics of women who received welfare (Aid to Families with Dependent Children - AFDC) with women who were considered to be "working poor."1 All respondents had at least one child. We used characteristics of women respondents in the first year of the study for comparison. There were significant differences during the women's youth and in their current characteristics.

Climbing the Wage Ladder

There are two schools of thought about the requirements of a successful welfare-towork program: One believes women on welfare should be encouraged to work, even at low-paying jobs, because steady work experience is a rung on a wage ladder that leads to jobs at higher wages. The other believes women on welfare should be encouraged to enroll in education and training to improve their skills and only take jobs with higher wages, because low-paying jobs are a dead end.

Previously, the Family Income Study found that both education/training and work experience affect the possibility of a woman leaving and staying off welfare. In this paper, we address the effects of work experience. We examined the hourly wages of women in the AFDC sample, who worked at least three months in any year during the five-year study period (1988-1992), to see if it was possible to climb a wage ladder.

Proportional Representation in Local Elections: A Review

Several members of Washington's House of Representatives asked the Institute to summarize the research on the role single member districts and other electoral arrangements may play in local government in increasing both voter turnout and representation for minority groups. This report reviews the literature on alternative, proportional representation arrangements in local elections in the United States, comparing their impact with that of single member and at-large districts.

Special Education Fiscal Study: Final Report

The Washington Legislature directed the Legislative Budget Committee and the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study the current Washington State special education funding formula and to report on the results of this examination. The current funding formula has been in place since the early 1980s. This study seeks to determine the changes over the last decade in the special education population and program effects of the current formula through an examination of: 1) Washington State trends, 2) local school district practices, 3) federal and state legal requirements, and 4) other states' special education funding formulas.

Student Outcomes in Special Education: A Review and Study Options

The Washington Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to determine the feasibility of doing a longitudinal study of educational outcomes for students in special education. A longitudinal study allows the tracking of a population over some period of time in order to document changes in that population. This report summarizes what is already known about student outcomes for special education and suggests possible ways to learn more about special education programs.

At What Hourly Wage Were Women Able to Leave and Stay Off Welfare? UPDATE

The Family Income Study's December 1993 issue brief, At What Hourly Wage Are Women Able to Leave and Stay Off Welfare? found a "threshold" wage of $6.50 per hour enabled many women to leave and stay off welfare for at least 36 months during the 1988-1992 Study period.

This paper updates that analysis and reports the 1994 equivalent "threshold" wage using two different methods: 1. Wages earned during the Study period were adjusted for inflation, using the Consumer Price Index. 2. Wages earned during the Study period were increased by the amount that would offset the increase in value, from 1988 to 1994, of the welfare package (Aid for Families With Dependent Children [AFDC] and Food Stamps).

Teenage Pregnancy: A Summary of Prevention Program Evaluation Results

This report provides the results from 20 teenage pregnancy prevention program evaluations. The programs are divided into two main categories: (1) Those intended to prevent a first pregnancy, and (2) Those intended to prevent subsequent pregnancies.

Washington State Sex Offenders: Overview of Recidivism Studies

In 1990, the legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study the effectiveness of the Special Sex Offender Sentencing Alternative (SSOSA). Legislators wanted to know if this treatment option, which allows judges to order community treatment for eligible sex offenders, compromised public safety. This publication reports on three studies regarding sex offenders that are designed to answer policymakers' questions. Each study addresses a particular aspect of recidivism.

Climbing the Wage Ladder: UPDATE

The Family Income Study's December 1994 issue brief, Climbing the Wage Ladder, found that women who had worked at least three months in any year during the five-year study period (1988-1992) climbed the wage ladder. This paper updates that analysis and reports the 1994 equivalent wages.

How Long Do Families Stay on AFDC in Washington?

This brief looks at who is on welfare in Washington and how this relates to length of stay on AFDC.

Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): A Discussion

This paper discusses the possible impacts of the federal Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC), a cash refund, on low income families in Washington State. Both Washington State's minimum wage and the federal EITC were increased in 1994. These two increases meant that a woman could have a higher potential income from working at the minimum wage than she would have from welfare, or when compared to the federal poverty guideline or the Washington Need Standard.

Income and Expenses of Families That Stayed Off Welfare

This analysis examines actual monthly income and expenses for families that left and successfully stayed off AFDC for at least three consecutive years, during 1988-1992. It also examines the relationship of marital status to staying off welfare.

Child Support Patterns in Washington State: 1993-1994

In 1990 the Washington Legislature responded to the requirements of the federal 1988 Family Policy Act and created a presumptive statewide schedule for child support determination. In 1993, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy was asked by legislative leaders to analyze patterns of actual child support orders, to compare the state's support schedule with other states, and to compare the guidelines to the cost of raising children. To conduct this research, the Institute relied on a sample of child support summary reports, which are completed in county superior courts when child support decisions are made. The time period for the reports in the sample was between June 1993 and May 1994.

Boot Camps: A Washington State Update and Overview of National Findings

Since the publication of Washington State's Work Ethic Camp: Proposal for an Evaluation (Institute, October 1993), Washington State opened the Work Ethic Camp for adult offenders, and passed legislation to develop a Basic Training Camp for juvenile offenders. This paper discusses both of these developments, and provides an update of the national research findings on this topic.

Profiles of Women Who Stay on Welfare More or Less Than Five Years

Proposals to limit the length of time a family could receive welfare (Aid to Families With Dependent Children--AFDC) have been made at both the federal and state levels. Limits of two and five years are most common. Although a time limit was not adopted in Washington State in 1995, the legislature passed E2SHB 2798 during the 1994 legislative session. When it goes into effect, this legislation will reduce a family's monthly AFDC check by 10 percent after the fourth year.

Children in Welfare Families Were Referred to Juvenile Court for Abuse and Neglect More Often Than Other Children

How Much Do Education and Training Increase the Wages of Women on Welfare?

Employment has been the major pathway off welfare (Aid to Families With Dependent Children - AFDC) in Washington State. Employment has also been emphasized in recent welfare reform proposals at the national level. Because most women on welfare earn low hourly wages when they work, it is difficult for them to leave and stay off welfare.

This paper examines the reasons why women on welfare increased their hourly wages, above their starting wage, while they were employed during the Family Income Study period. Starting wages depended upon womens educational level, previous work experience, age, and local labor markets.

Statewide and County Teenage Birthrates

The 1993 Legislature passed ESHB 1408, which established a statewide media campaign and local community-based programs to prevent teenage pregnancy. The overall goal of the legislation was to reduce teen births. The legislation called for the community-based programs to be evaluated by changes in teenage pregnancy rates in each county. This report provides the results of a review of teenage child birth rates for Washington State and for each of the 39 counties.

Mason-Lewis Advocacy Program Evaluation

This report provides preliminary results from an outcome evaluation of the community-based teen pregnancy prevention program, known as the "advocacy program," that began its services in Lewis and Mason Counties in July 1994. This evaluation covers the period July 1994 through 1995. The advocacy program was one of 12 community-based programs selected by the Department of Health (DOH) to receive state funds under ESHB 1408.

Community Notification in Washington State: Decision-Making and Costs

Washington State's Community Protection Act includes a provision allowing public officials to warn communities about potentially dangerous sex offenders when they are released from incarceration. The statute does not specify how dangerousness is to be assessed, nor does it establish methods for notification. Local jurisdictions, therefore, have implemented the law in a variety of ways. This paper describes how local jurisdictions determine, with assistance from the state, which sex offenders are dangerous, and how they notify the public. A sample of jurisdictions were contacted to ascertain their decision-making procedures and costs.

A Plan for Evaluating Washington State's Violence Prevention Act

The 1994 Washington Legislature passed E2SHB 2319, a wide-ranging Act whose primary purpose is to reduce the rate of violence-particularly youth violence-and other at-risk behaviors in the state. To accomplish these reductions, the legislature adopted three policy approaches: public health, community health and safety networks, and increased criminal penalties. The legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the effectiveness of these policies in reducing the rates of violence and the other at-risk behaviors. This report describes the Institute's evaluation plan.

Tax Policy for Recycling and Water Quality: An Analysis of Programs From Other States

This paper analyzes and evaluates the use of environmental tax policy across the country in two categories: recycling and water quality. The intention is to provide background information on environmental tax programs that can be used as a guide for the design and implementation of environmental tax programs in Washington State. With information from programs in other states, legislators and agencies can learn from both the positive and negative elements of programs tested elsewhere.

Community Notification: A Study of Offender Characteristics and Recidivism

The Community Protection Act was implemented in Washington State in March 1990. One of the provisions of the Act, known as the community notification law, authorizes local law enforcement agencies to disseminate information to the public regarding convicted sex offenders who reside in the community. Washington State's community notification law was the first of its kind in the nation. Several other states have now enacted similar laws. This report provides the first examination of how the community notification law has been implemented in Washington State, who has been affected by it, and its impact on recidivism among sex offenders who were subjects of the law.

The Family Income Study and Washington's Welfare Population: A Comprehensive Review

This review brings together in one report the important findings of the Institute's Family Income Study, a longitudinal study of Washington households that received public assistance or were at risk of receiving assistance. The report summarizes the dozens of reports, newsletters, issue briefs and conference summaries that are the research results of five annual interviews with sample households from 1988-92.

Birth to Three Years Report

This study identifies baseline data necessary for the legislature to: 1) understand the scope of current programs with significant public funding for infants and toddlers with disabilities, and 2) examine the commitment that the state made in accepting federal requirements for early intervention programs under Part H of the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Act) as of October 1994.

Washington State's Energy Office: A Review and Options

The 1995 Washington Legislature directed the Institute, in consultation with the Office of Financial Management and State Energy Office, to review options regarding distribution of state energy-related functions located in the Energy Office and develop an implementation plan for the closure of the Washington State Energy Office. This proviso also directed the Institute to (1) explore the feasibility of using non-profit organizations to provide energy-related services; (2) explore options for distributing these services to other state entities; and (3) consider the time schedule and statutory changes necessary for this distribution.

Trends in At-Risk Behaviors of Youth in Washington

The 1994 Washington Legislature passed Engrossed Second Substitute House Bill 2319, a wide-ranging Act whose purposes are to achieve measurable, cost-effective, reductions in criminal violence and other ?at-risk? behaviors of youth. The Act adopted a number of policies designed to reduce: (1) violent criminal acts; (2) teen substance abuse; (3) teen pregnancy; (4) teen suicide; (5) dropping out of school; (6) child abuse or neglect; (7) domestic violence; and (8) state-funded out-of-home placements. The Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate whether these policies achieve a measurable reduction in youth violence in Washington. This report highlights the “big picture” trends in six of the eight at-risk behaviors identified by the Legislature. Data in this report are current through 1994.

Washington's Special Education Safety Net, A Preliminary Report

In 1995, the Washington Legislature revised the state special education funding formula and developed a safety net process to assist school districts with three areas of specific financial need. The Legislature also directed the Institute, in cooperation with the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI), the Office of Financial Management (OFM), and the fiscal committees of Washington’s Legislature, to evaluate the allocation of safety net funds under Washington’s special education funding formula. A summary of the first round of safety net applications and future directions to improve the process are presented in this paper.

TRUANCY: Preliminary Findings on Washington's 1995 Law

In the 1995 legislative session, E2SSB 5439 (the "Becca Bill") was passed by the Washington State Legislature and signed into law. Its purpose is to give parents, police, schools, and courts the ability to intervene earlier in the lives of at-risk youth. Sections 66-74 of the new law address truancy. The new law requires the school district to file a truancy petition directly with the juvenile court if a juvenile has five unexcused absences in a month or ten in a school year. The Becca Bill directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to review and evaluate: the need to develop a statewide definition of excused and unexcused absences; the need to prohibit school districts from suspending and expelling students as disciplinary measures in response to unexcused absences; and the process of filing truancy petitions. This report describes how the law has been interpreted and implemented in school districts and juvenile courts from September through November 1995.

First-Time Juvenile Offenders in Washington State: Where Do They Serve Their Sentences?

The Washington Legislature in 1994 directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study juvenile violence, teen pregnancy, and other at-risk behaviors of youth. The Institute was instructed to analyze trends in these behaviors and evaluate the cost-effectiveness of Washington's efforts to achieve measurable reductions in violence and at-risk behaviors. This research brief is part of the Institute's plan to provide the Legislature and other interested persons with up-to-date findings on these topics.

Juvenile Violence in Washington: First-Time and Repeat Offenders

The Washington Legislature in 1994 directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study juvenile violence and other at-risk behaviors of youth. The Institute was instructed to analyze trends in these behaviors and evaluate the cost-effectiveness of Washington's efforts to achieve measurable reductions in violence and at-risk behaviors. This research brief is part of the Institute's plan to provide the Legislature and other interested persons with up-to-date findings on these topics.

Does a Mother's Age and Marital Status at Birth Affect the Probability That Her Child Will Have a Juvenile Court Record?

Juvenile Curfew and Parental Responsibility Ordinances

The increase in juvenile violent crime in Washington prompted the 1994 Washington State Legislature to pass a law enabling local jurisdictions to adopt juvenile curfews. Cities and counties are allowed to establish “times and conditions under which juveniles may be present on the public streets, in the public parks, or in any other public place during specified hours” (RCW 35.21.635 and 36.21.425). The Institute was directed by the Legislature to study juvenile violence and other at-risk behaviors of youth. As part of the Institute’s research efforts concerning juvenile violence and prevention, a survey was conducted of the cities in Washington with juvenile curfew ordinances. This report reviews the ordinances and surveys city officials regarding their experiences.

Sex Offender Community Notification: A Review of Laws in 32 States

Community notification refers to the distribution of information regarding released sex offenders to citizens and community organizations. This report analyzes 32 states with legislation authorizing some form of notification, or access to information, on registered sex offenders. The states are organized into three categories: broad community notification, notification to organizations and individuals at risk, and access to registration information.

Community Public Health and Safety Networks: Case Studies and Governance Structure

A preliminary report on the initial activities of the Community Public Health and Safety Networks to reduce violence in Washington State.

Juvenile Offenders: How Often Do They Become Violent Offenders in Washington State?

This publication examines violent juvenile offenders under the age of 18, follows them through the age of 25, and identifies the portion that were convicted as adults of felony offenses.

Sex Offender Registration: A Review of State Laws

This paper describes the policy debates surrounding registration laws and summarizes the features of legislation in all 50 states.

Child Abuse or Neglect Trends in Washington State

This report describes the current rate of reported child abuse or neglect in Washington State, whether the rate has changed in recent years, and how the rate compares to national incidence estimates.

Trends in State-Funded Out-of Home Placements of Youth in Washington State

A review of the caseload histories of Washington State's Family Foster Care and Group Care programs.

Juvenile Offenders Under the Department of Corrections' Jurisdiction: Changing Trends

The Washington Legislature in 1994 directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study juvenile violence, teen pregnancy, and other at-risk behaviors of youth. The Institute was instructed to analyze these behaviors and evaluate the cost-effectiveness of Washington's efforts to achieve measurable reductions in violence and at-risk behaviors. This research brief is part of the Institute's plan to provide the Legislature and other interested persons with up-to-date findings on these topics.

Juvenile Early Intervention: Testing Juvenile Accountability in the Courts

This brief describes Washington’s juvenile court early intervention project administered at the county level. The purpose of the early intervention program is to keep participants from re-offending. The program targets offenders sentenced to probation for the first time who are assessed as having a high risk for re-offending.

Truancy Petition Update: September 1995 - June 1996

Sex Offender Community Notification Update: May 1996 to September 1996

An April 1996 Institute report analyzed state statutes covering community notification; 32 states were included. This update includes eight additional states that passed legislation either authorizing community notification or allowing access to sex offender registration information. Arizona’s community notification law also was amended, therefore it is also included.

Washington State Sexually Violent Predators: Profile of Special Commitment Center Residents

In 1990, Washington State enacted a civil commitment law for persons found to be sexually violent predators. As of September 1996, 38 persons are housed at the Special Commitment Center in Monroe, Washington; 21 have been committed under the Act, and the others are awaiting trial. This paper summarizes records from the Special Commitment Center regarding the residents' criminal history, offense pattern, treatment history, and mental health diagnosis.

The Rate of Juvenile Violence in Washington State Declined in 1995, but Remains High

This research brief provides the latest information on trends in juvenile violence in Washington, based on court conviction and arrest rates.

Washington's Special Education Safety Net: A Final Report of the 1995-96 Safety Net Process

The Washington Legislature in 1995 directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the safety net created to address potential school district funding issues under the new special education funding formula. This study finds that school districts are receiving $10.5 million (62 percent of the amount appropriated for the first year) in safety net awards. Ninety-one percent of safety net funds were awarded for school districts under the category of Maintenance of Effort for State Revenues. The rest of the awards were made from the other two categories, Special Characteristics and Costs and High Cost Individual. This study highlights administrative issues to be worked on related to: 1) timing the release of funds, 2) greater education and access for school districts, and 3) an investigation of what criteria are appropriate for the categories of Special Characteristics and Costs and High Cost Individual.

Job Opportunities and Basic Skills: Perspectives From Eight States

Prior to the recently enacted federal welfare reform, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996, Congress last changed the national public assistance program in the Family Support Act of 1988. States were required to develop Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) programs to increase efforts to move welfare recipients into the labor market. In its 1996 supplemental budget, the Washington Legislature directed its Joint Legislative Audit and Review Committee to evaluate our state’s implementation of JOBS. This report accompanies that review, and describes the operation of JOBS programs in eight other states.

Washington State Child Abuse Reporting Laws: Summary of Legislative Changes, 1965-1996

This paper describes how Washington State laws regarding child abuse have been amended since 1965. Each legislative change is summarized, allowing the reader to view the changes in state policy regarding abuse definitions and protected classes of individuals, as well as the amended categories of mandatory reporters.

Community Notification in Washington State: 1996 Survey of Law Enforcement

In August and September of 1996, the Institute conducted a survey of law enforcement to solicit information on community notification procedures throughout Washington State. The report describes sex offender harassment incidents and methods law enforcement use to reduce these incidents, including community meetings.

Washington's Sexually Violent Predator Law: Legislative History and Comparisons With Other States

In 1990, Washington State enacted a law authorizing civil commitment of individuals found to be “sexually violent predators” at the end of their criminal sentence. This civil commitment law was part of an omnibus bill, the 1990 Community Protection Act. In order to increase the state’s knowledge about effective strategies with sex offenders, the legislature directed the Institute to evaluate this law’s effectiveness. This publication updates information on the implementation and background of sexual predator laws.

Sex Offender Registration: National Requirements and State Registries

This issue brief explains the general requirements established by the federal government for registration of sex offenders released from incarceration. Also included are the results from a 1996 Institute survey listing the number of registered sex offenders by state.

An Examination of Organizational Structure and Programmatic Reform in Public Child Protective Services

This report surveys the 50 states regarding their organization of children and family services, then analyzes the responses and supplemented information from national sources. In addition, case studies are described using five states that have undergone recent organizational or programmatic reforms in the area of child protection. These states are: Florida, Iowa, Maryland, Missouri, and Tennessee.

The Class of 1988, Seven Years Later: How a Juvenile Offender's Crime, Criminal History, and Age Affect the Chances of Becoming an Adult Felon in Washington State

The guidelines established by the Juvenile Justice Act of 1977 determine in large part how juvenile offenders are sentenced in Washington State. This report examines how three primary sentencing factors—a juvenile's crime, criminal history, and age—will affect the chance the juvenile will re-offend as a young adult.

Evaluating Early Intervention in Washington State Juvenile Courts: A Six-Month Progress Report

The 1996 Washington State Legislature appropriated $2.35 million to 12 juvenile courts for early intervention programs targeting youth placed on probation for the first time and considered at high risk to re-offend. At the request of the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy evaluated the program. The primary outcome measure is whether there is a reduction in subsequent court adjudications for those youth in the program. The program will be evaluated to determine the level of program success necessary for the state's investment to be cost-effective.

Identifying Cost-Effective Strategies for the Criminal Justice System in Washington State: A Progress Report

This progress report contains new information on the fiscal costs of the criminal justice system in Washington and how they have changed over the last two decades. The report also discusses work underway at the Institute to assess the costs and benefits of criminal justice strategies.

Protocols and Training Standards: Investigating Allegations of Child Sexual Abuse

A budget proviso in the 1996 supplemental budget directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to "collect data and information from jurisdictions within the state of Washington and outside the state of Washington, including other nations, that have experience with developing protocols and training standards for investigating child sexual abuse." This project incorporated a review of the scientific literature, model protocols and standards from other states and jurisdictions, and legislation in other states. In addition, a panel of state experts visited four counties in the state to observe their practices.

Washington State Juvenile Courts: Workloads and Costs

To establish an accurate measure of the costs of supervising offenders sentenced in juvenile court, the Institute conducted a survey of the 33 juvenile courts in Washington. The survey was designed in cooperation with the Washington Association of Juvenile Court Administrators. This report highlights the findings from this survey, including information on caseloads and average costs of detention facilities and community supervision programs in Washington State.

Washington State Youth Violence Prevention and Intervention Program: Summary of Evaluations

The Youth Violence Prevention and Intervention Program is administered through the Washington State Department of Community, Trade and Economic Development. The program administers a grant using federal and state funds for community-based youth violence prevention and intervention projects across Washington State. For the fiscal years 1994-1996, 2.05 million dollars were spent on these projects; 31 percent was funded by the state and the remainder by the federal government. This report summarizes evaluation results for projects funded from 1994 through 1996.

Performance Measures: Community Public Health and Safety Networks

Community Public Health and Safety Networks were created out of the 1994 Violence Reduction Act. Networks were charged with reducing violence, specifically youth violence, along with seven other "at-risk" behaviors. Fifty-three networks were established and required to submit comprehensive plans to the Family Policy Council. These plans highlighted at least three at-risk behaviors to be targeted for reduction. Following approval of their plans, performance contracts were established that included a statement of work and specific performance measures. As the contracts progress, the state and networks will gain knowledge on the relative effectiveness of approaches. The report contains chosen risk factors, baseline rates, and targeted outcomes for 17 of the networks.

Findings From the Community Protection Research Project: A Chartbook, Sixth Edition

In 1990, the Washington State Legislature passed the Community Protection Act, a comprehensive set of laws that increased prison terms for sex offenders, established registration and notification laws, authorized funds for treatment of adult and juvenile sex offenders, and provided services for victims of sexual assault. The legislation directed the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of these state-supported programs. This chartbook contains information selected from this research.

Washington State Juvenile Court Recidivism Estimates: Fiscal Year 1994 Youth

At the request of the Washington State Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration, the Institute for Public Policy conducted an analysis of the recidivism of juvenile offenders placed on community supervision. Youth placed in the following programs were included in this analysis: Option B, SSODA, Probation, and Diversion. The Institute was also asked to assess how the Consolidated Juvenile Services (CJS) funding allocation factors are related to juvenile recidivism. This report includes findings on the recidivism of juveniles in these programs and the potential policy and funding implications.

Assessing Risk: Washington State Juvenile Court Early Intervention Program

The 1996 Washington State Legislature appropriated 2.35 million dollars to twelve juvenile courts for early intervention programs to target youth placed on probation for the first time and considered at high risk to reoffend. The goal of these programs is to prevent youth from becoming entrenched in the court system. This report summarizes the assessments of high-risk youth who had been screened for the program as of May 1997. It provides a descriptive portrait of these individuals, their characteristics, and family environments.

Megan's Law: A Review of State and Federal Legislation

In 1996, Congress amended the federal law that requires states to register sex offenders. These amendments, known as "Megan's Law," authorize the public release of information about registered sex offenders when necessary to protect public safety. This report analyzes the 47 states with Megan’s Laws. These state laws can be divided into three categories, organized principally by the degree of notification: 1) Broad community notification; 2) Notification to individuals and organizations at risk; or 3) Access to registration information. This report also discusses implementation issues, offender harassment, and legal challenges to these laws. A summary of notification programs in other countries is provided.

Juvenile Curfew Practices in Washington State

In 1996, a survey and review of juvenile curfew/parental responsibility ordinances in the cities of Washington State was conducted as part of the Institute’s research efforts concerning juvenile violence and prevention. In order to update information regarding juvenile curfew/parental responsibility ordinances in Washington State, the Institute conducted another survey in 1997. This report reviews the structure and purpose of the juvenile curfew and provides a brief overview of legal questions regarding juvenile curfews. It also describes juvenile curfews in effect in Washington State in 1997 and summarizes findings from the Institute’s 1997 survey.

Standards for Improving Research Effectiveness in Adult and Juvenile Justice

The 1997 Washington State Legislature recognized the need to improve the analysis, evaluation, and forecasting of sentencing and treatment alternatives. In order to measure the success of criminal justice programs in increasing public safety and reducing subsequent offenses by convicted persons, the Institute was directed to: 1) propose a common definition of recidivism, and 2) develop standards for measuring the effectiveness of programs funded by the Community Juvenile Accountability Act. This report incorporates both assignments.

Fast Tracking Youth to Diversion in Thurston County: A Preliminary Analysis

A diversion program to "fast track" first-time juvenile offenders to Community Accountability Boards in one Washington county has so far resulted in reduced felony recidivism for participants. This preliminary finding is based on six months of follow-up data. A definitive report with an 18-month follow-up period will be published in summer 2000.

Child Care Copayment Affordability Study: Are Washington State's Child Care Copayments Reasonable and Affordable?

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed in EHB 3901 to conduct a study of reasonable, affordable child care co-payments that are realistic for low-income families. The Institute was also asked to review the child care co-payment schedules of other jurisdictions and to model the economic impact of child care co-payments on low-income families. Washington State's new child care co-payment schedule became effective on November 1,1997. The new schedule is the result of the same legislation that created WorkFirst, the state's response to the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (PL104-193).The employment emphasis of WorkFirst makes the state's child care subsidy program a critical element of welfare reform.

Watching the Bottom Line: Cost-Effective Interventions for Reducing Crime in Washington

This report highlights the findings of the Institute’s economic analysis of programs that try to reduce criminal behavior. The Institute found that there are some interventions, if well implemented, that can lower crime rates and lower total costs. Some economically attractive programs are designed to reduce the odds that young children will ever begin committing crimes, and some are designed for juvenile offenders already in the criminal justice system.

Truant Students: Evaluating the Impact of the "Becca Bill" Truancy Petition Requirements

In 1995, the Washington State Legislature enacted truancy legislation which gives parents, schools, and courts a specific process to intervene earlier in the lives of at-risk youth and students with school attendance problems. In response to this new law, schools must file a "truancy petition" in juvenile court for students with five or more unexcused absences in one month. This evaluation reports on the number of petitions filed statewide and examines the impact of the truancy petition process in ten school districts in Washington State. A technical appendix which reviews research on truancy and truancy related programs throughout the country is also available.

Evaluating the "Becca Bill" Truancy Petition Requirements: A Case Study in Ten Washington State School Districts

The 1995 Washington Legislature directed the Institute to evaluate the effectiveness of the truancy petition process implemented under the 1995 "Becca Bill" (E2SSHB 2640). As part of this evaluation, the Institute conducted a case study of truant students in ten school districts in Washington during the 1996-97 school year. This report provides a statewide summary of Washington's truancy petition process and describes the major findings from the one-year case study.

Washington State's Student Financial Aid Programs

For many students attending college, receipt of financial aid is a key element of affordability. This study reports on the current usage and distribution of financial aid, investigates other resources available to financial aid recipients, and compares alternative methods of financial aid distribution and their impacts on the sectors of higher education and students served within each sector. The study also provides comparative data from other states on methods of establishing tuition rates and the relationship of tuition to state funding and affordability.

Community Public Health and Safety Networks: Projects and Performance Measures

This report analyzes the projects funded by the Community Public Health and Safety Networks during the first year funding cycle (FY1997). Information was obtained for 544 projects funded by 42 (of 53) Networks. Project outcomes and measurement tools are examined, as well as the types of work performed and any results produced. Projects funded for this first year lasted about four months. Therefore, only initial results are discussed in this report.

Sexually Violent Predators and Civil Commitment

Washington State law provides for the civil commitment of extremely dangerous sex offenders. This study describes the 61 adult offenders who were referred for possible commitment as predators but for whom such petitions for civil commitment were not filed, during the first six years after the law's passage (July 1990 through June 1996). The subsequent criminal behavior of these 61 offenders was tracked in official records for the time period following their release from custody. During this period, more than one-half of the group were rearrested. The highest percentage of offenders were rearrested for nonsexual crimes.

The Family Resource Wage Progression Model: Estimating Resources Available to Low-Income Families in Washington State

The Family Resource Wage Progression Model (FRWP) calculates federal tax liability, earned income tax credits, food stamp benefits, and TANF (welfare) grants for low-income families with earnings under 200 percent of the federal poverty level. The FRWP model can be used to examine different child care copayment rates to determine the affordability of child care for families leaving welfare for work.

Community Notification as Viewed by Washington's Citizens

The 1990 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the effectiveness of the Community Protection Act. As part of this evaluation, the Institute contracted with the Social and Economic Sciences Research Center at Washington State University to conduct telephone interviews with a sample of Washington State residents regarding the state's community notification law. The results of the survey indicated an overwhelming majority of respondents were familiar with the law and believed it was very important.

Trends in At-Risk Behaviors of Youth in Washington 1998 Update

This report provides information on trends of "at-risk" behaviors of youth in Washington State as of 1998. Since 1995, the Institute has published trends in the rates of violent crime, teen substance abuse, teen pregnancy, teen suicide, dropping out of school, child abuse placements, domestic violence, and foster home placements. These trends establish a baseline to assess statewide progress in measuring the outcomes established in the 1994 Violence Reduction Act.

1996 County Comparisons: At-Risk Behaviors of Youth in Washington

This companion report compares the 1996 county rates for eight indicators of at-risk behaviors of youth in Washington. County rates for all available years may be viewed on the Institute's searchable database.

Trends in Child Abuse or Neglect in Washington State

This topic brief discusses the rate of reported child abuse and neglect cases in Washington State between 1991 and 1997. Information supplied by Washington's Child Protective Services (CPS) shows the rate of referrals and alleged victims of child abuse by various age categories.

Trends in Foster Care Use in Washington State: 1970 to 1997

The rate of youth in state-funded foster care in Washington State is shown in this topic brief. The statewide trend in foster care placement between 1970 and 1997 is presented; county-level data from 1987 to 1997 are also listed.

Washington's Youth Violence Prevention and Intervention Program: 1997 Evaluations

The Department of Community, Trade, and Economic Development (CTED) administers the Youth Violence Prevention and Intervention Program. Through a competitive process, the Office of Crime Victims Advocacy within CTED provides federal and state funding to community-based projects focused on preventing youth violence. This report summarizes findings from the 1997 evaluation of these projects. The evaluation concentrated on ten projects, those in their first and second year of funding.

Sex Offenses in Washington State: 1998 Update

In 1990, the Washington State Legislature passed the Community Protection Act, a comprehensive set of laws that increased prison terms for sex offenders, established registration and notification laws, authorized funds for treatment of adult and juvenile sex offenders, and provided services for victims of sexual assault. The legislation directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the effectiveness of these state-supported programs. The charts included in this report were selected from this research and cover a number of topics related to this research effort.

Sexual Predator Commitment Laws in the United States: 1998 Update

As of 1998, twelve states had statutes authorizing the confinement and treatment of highly dangerous sex offenders following completion of their criminal sentence: Arizona, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin. This report describes sexual predator laws and compares several of their key provisions.

Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration Assessments: Validity Review and Recommendations

The Department of Social and Health Services Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) has undertaken several legislatively directed developments in its assessment procedures. The JRA contracted with the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to: 1) Examine the capability of the Initial Security Classification Assessment and Community Risk Assessment to predict recidivism, 2) Design an evaluation of the Washington State Sex Offender Screening Tool and the Sexually Aggressive and Vulnerable Youth Residential Screen, 3) Recommend a process for selecting the highest-risk youth for participation in Intensive Parole, including a risk assessment instrument for use while on Intensive Parole, and 4) Compare these assessments to national models, and seek a review by national experts.

Community Public Health and Safety Networks: 1998 Evaluation Plan

The Community Public Health and Safety Networks were established as part of Washington State's Violence Prevention Act (Act). The legislation anticipated a strong outcomes orientation on the part of networks. The Institute found that initial contracts between networks and providers often included measures of activities instead of outcomes. This report looks at the obstacles networks face in moving toward an outcomes orientation rather than a measure of activities.

Validation of the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment: Interim Report

This report describes the results of an interim validation study. In collaboration with juvenile court professionals, the Institute developed a comprehensive risk assessment, the Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment (WSJCA), as specified in the 1997 Community Juvenile Accountability Act. For the courts to have confidence in the WSJCA, the risk level classification from the pre-screen needed to be validated for juvenile offenders in Washington State. Validating the pre-screen means determining how well it predicts recidivism rates for groups of youth. Adequately measuring recidivism requires selecting a representative cohort of youth rated on the assessment, and then waiting 2 1/2 years to measure their recidivism.

Court Appointed Special Advocates for Children in Washington State: A Review of Effectiveness

The 1997 session of the Washington State Legislature funded an evaluation of court-appointed special advocates/guardians ad litem (CASA/GALs). Volunteer CASA advocates operate in 22 of the state's 32 court jurisdictions, investigating and representing the dependent child's perspective in family court. This evaluation determines the effectiveness of the CASA/GAL program in improving outcomes for dependent children, and examines cost-effectiveness.

Community Facilities for Juvenile Offenders in Washington State

This report examines the operation and security procedures in the state Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA) community facilities. A review of the recidivism rates of certain juvenile offenders and an analysis of various models for Community Oversight Committees is also provided. A related technical appendix on individual facility procedures is available by request.

Community Facilities for Juvenile Offenders in Washington State: Addendum

This addendum to the Institute’s 1998 report, Community Facilities for Juvenile Offenders in Washington State, discusses barriers faced by court and agency personnel in assessing the risk of juvenile offenders prior to sentencing. Based on interviews, the document covers the procedural and financial obstacles to sharing information about juvenile offenders

Juvenile Detention Standards in Washington State

The 1998 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to address several tasks regarding standards in juvenile detention facilities. This report analyzes standards in existing facilities, looks at compliance with recommended national guidelines, and identifies areas for improvement.

Citizen Review Panels: An Opportunity to Improve Child Protection?

The 1998 Legislature directed this study of citizen review panels for child protection. The Legislature determined that it is "critically important to the basic nurture, health and safety of children that the state examine a state wide program relating to child abuse and neglect that includes citizen review panels" as required by federal law. This study addresses: 1) potential barriers to citizen review panels obtaining access to information necessary for them to meet their obligations, 2) current Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) committees relating to children, and 3) issues relating to the creation of review panels.

Washington State Juvenile Court Assessment Manual Version 2.0

Can Drug Courts Save Money for Washington State Taxpayers?

In the late 1980s, with the number of drug-related cases on the rise, several courts in the United States began to experiment with new ways to process defendants charged with drug-related offenses. A key innovation was the “drug court.” Due to the more intensive monitoring by the court, as well as the provision of drug treatment, drug courts are more expensive than regular court processing. A typical program costs about $2,000 more per participant. Are drug courts worth this extra cost? Do participants commit fewer subsequent crimes and thereby reduce future costs to taxpayers and crime victims? In short, what is the bottom line?

Trends in Felony Crime in Washington State and Related Taxpayer Costs

The Washington State legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the costs and benefits of certain criminal justice policies and violence-prevention programs. As part of this activity, the Institute analyzes the overall level of crime in Washington. This report highlights those “big picture” trends.

Research Findings on Adult Corrections' Programs: A Review

At the request of the Washington State Department of Corrections, the Institute for Public Policy summarized what is known about the effectiveness of adult correctional programs in reducing recidivism. The report covers programs in seven areas: substance abuse treatment, education, employment, sex offender treatment, cognitive behavioral treatment, life skills training, and intensive supervision. The focus is on fairly recent programs that have been evaluated using a control or comparison group design. Each program area is summarized and individual programs are reviewed in light of their effectiveness in reducing criminal recidivism.

The Community Juvenile Accountability Act: Research-Proven Interventions for the Juvenile Courts

The 1997 Washington State Legislature significantly altered this state’s juvenile offender sentencing laws and intervention policies (E2SHB 3900). One portion of the legislation established the Community Juvenile Accountability Act (CJAA). The Act changed the way some local court programs are funded—only programs shown to reduce recidivism cost-effectively are funded under the CJAA. In the Act, the Institute was charged with measuring whether the CJAA programs cost-effectively reduce recidivism in Washington State.

Higher Education Students' Off-Campus Work Patterns

During the 1998 session, legislators examined the Washington State Need Grant program and the increasing loan debts of students in higher education institutions. As a next step to understanding how students pay for college, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed to compile information on students who worked while enrolled in a post-secondary institution. This study is the first comprehensive look at reviewing the off-campus employment status of students attending colleges and universities across the state.

Community Networks: Progress Toward Measuring Results

This review examined ten community networks to gauge their understanding of the outcome measurement approach and legislative expectations. The interviews revealed substantial progress by the networks in defining and measuring results connected to community projects. By legislative direction, the networks are expected to focus on prevention with respect to violence, especially youth violence. Preventative efforts take time to show their effects; thus, the Legislature directed that an external evaluation of the networks and their programs occur after five years of network operation. The Legislature assigned the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to conduct this evaluation.

Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration Intensive Parole: Program Evaluation Design

The 1997 Washington State Legislature provided intensive parole funding for up to 25 percent of the highest-risk youth placed in the custody of the Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration (JRA). The legislation directed that intensive parole be implemented by January 1, 1999, and include: 1) a case management system, 2) transition services (multi-agency), and 3) plans for information management and program evaluation. The JRA contracted with the Institute to evaluate the implementation of intensive parole, determine whether the program reduces recidivism, and analyze its costs and benefits to Washington State taxpayers.

Washington State's Solo Path: Juvenile Sentencing Guidelines

In 1977, Washington State enacted a major reform of its juvenile justice system, becoming the first state to rely on a sentencing grid for juvenile offenders. This article traces the history of the state's juvenile justice system reform.

The Comparative Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime: A Review of National Research Findings With Implications for Washington State

This report describes the "bottom-line" economics of various programs that try to reduce criminal behavior. We identify the types of programs that can, as well as those that apparently cannot reduce criminal offending in a cost-beneficial way. Among other uses, this information can assist decision-makers in allocating scarce public resources.

The Comparative Costs and Benefits of Programs to Reduce Crime: A Review of National Research With Implications for Washington State (4 pager)

WorkFirst Job Search Services: Preliminary Analysis

An analysis of outcomes associated with Job Search services provided by the Washington State WorkFirst program. After statistically controlling for client characteristics, local economic conditions, and other factors, this analysis shows that females participating in WorkFirst Job Search have higher employment rates, higher earnings, and lower welfare use than females with no recorded WorkFirst activity. The report is part of a legislatively mandated evaluation of WorkFirst prepared by the Institute under contract with the Joint Legislative Audit and Review Committee.

Teacher Preparation and Development

In the spring of 1998, the Board of Directors for the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Institute) requested staff to examine whether teachers are obtaining the knowledge and skills they need to help students meet the state's new academic standards. The Institute selected three teacher preparation and development programs covering the early stages of a teacher's career to examine in-depth: 1) Pre-service Teacher Preparation (Residency Certificate); 2) Beginning Teacher Assistance; 3) Professional Certification.

The Institute relied on case studies, surveys, and interviews to obtain information on Washington's teacher education programs, beginning teacher assistance programs, and pilot projects for professional certification. Surveys were conducted of all new teachers hired in public schools between 1996 and 1998 and all principals in public schools. The Institute also reviewed research literature on teacher quality, analyzed data on certification and employment of teachers in Washington's public schools, and summarized activities related to teacher quality in other states.

Alternate Routes to Teacher Certification

Washington and 40 other states have instituted one or more "alternate routes" to teacher certification. This report examines two nationwide alternative certification programs as well as programs in Washington and other states.

Evaluating the Washington State Intensive Parole Model for High Risk Juvenile Offenders

In 1997, the Washington State Legislature determined that the system for transitioning the highest-risk youth from state institutions to parole did not provide adequate rehabilitation and public safety. The Legislature found that intensive supervision, as described in the intensive parole model of the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) was a promising strategy for reducing recidivism rates for these juvenile offenders. JRA contracted with the Institute to evaluate the program's implementation, determine whether the program reduces recidivism, and analyze its costs and benefits to taxpayers and crime victims. This report describes the implementation of intensive parole to date.

Welfare and Employment Outcomes of the WorkFirst Program

This report analyzes the welfare and employment outcomes of clients in the WorkFirst program, Washington State’s implementation of the federal Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program. WorkFirst clients are more likely to gain employment, have higher earnings, work more hours, and leave the caseload when compared to similar clients under Aid to Families with Dependent Children-Jobs, Opportunities, and Basic Skills (AFDC-JOBS).

Guidelines for Child Sexual Abuse Investigation Protocols

The 1999 Legislature passed legislation concerning investigations of alleged child sexual abuse. In addition to statutory changes to the investigatory process for allegations of child sexual abuse, the law established a multidisciplinary group to create statewide guidelines for these investigations. This document details the state guidelines, including both minimum state requirements for county protocols and advisory comments to guide local decision-making. Prosecutors are to use these guidelines in leading local efforts for county protocols; those protocols were put into place July 1, 2000.

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices
For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles
in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. Under E2SHB 2536, the inventory, published here, will be used by Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) and the Health Care Authority (HCA) to complete a baseline assessment to determine whether their current programs and services are evidence-based or research-based. By December 30, 2013, DSHS and HCA will report to the Governor and the legislature on strategies to increase the use of evidence-based and research-based practices.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices
For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles
in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the first update to the September 30, 2012 publication. The accompanying report describes the inventory update process, as well as the ongoing technical assistance process by UW.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices
For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles
in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the second update to the September 30, 2012 publication. The accompanying report describes the inventory update process, as well as the ongoing technical assistance process by UW.

Educational Outcomes of Foster Youth--Updated Benchmarks

This report outlines four outcome measures for tracking the educational progress of students in foster care. Previous research conducted by the Institute has shown disparities in the educational outcomes of foster youth, including a higher dropout rate, lower scores on statewide standardized assessments, and lower high school graduation rates. Improvements in state educational data have resulted in the ability to track student progress since 2005. We can now look at historical trends for many of these outcomes to determine how results have changed over time. This report provides detailed definitions and results on four long-term measures related to the educational status of youth in foster care. These measures include the following:

School retention: Nine out of ten (90%) foster youth re-enroll in the following school year (compared to 94% of non-foster youth).
Behind grade level: 6% of foster youth and non-foster youth are behind their expected grade level.
Adjusted cohort graduation rate: The longitudinal (four-year) graduation rate for youth in long-term foster care was between 35 and 55% (the rate for non-foster youth was between 70 and 75%).
Annual graduation rate: Measured on an annual basis, the graduation rate for foster youth was 48% compared to 72% for non-foster students.

Innovative Schools in Washington: What Lessons Can Be Learned?

The 2011 Washington State Legislature passed two laws concerning innovative schools. The first recognized public schools that are “bold, creative, and innovative.” A second law sought to expand the number of innovative schools by allowing flexibility in state statutes and rules. At present, there are 34 designated schools and innovation “zones.”

For this study, we statistically analyzed school performance; conducted systematic literature reviews; and visited most designated schools. We learned that the designated innovative schools are extremely varied in their missions, student populations, strategies, and outcomes.

Recidivism Trends of Domestic Violence Offenders in Washington State

Washington State Legislature passed a bill directing the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to 1) review the research literature on treatment for domestic violence offenders and other interventions effective at reducing recidivism; 2) survey states’ laws regarding domestic violence treatment for offenders; and 3) analyze recidivism rates of domestic violence offenders in Washington. Findings were published earlier this year on the first two tasks. In this report, we complete the legislative assignment and describe the recidivism rates of domestic violence offenders in Washington.

Prison, Police, and Programs: Evidence-Based Options that Reduce Crime and Save Money

Since the 1990s, the Washington State legislature has directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to identify policies with an “evidence-based” track record of improving certain public policy outcomes. Outcomes of interest have included, among others, education, child welfare, crime, and mental health.

This report updates and extends WSIPP’s list of well-researched policies that reduce crime. We display our current tabulation of evidence-based prevention, juvenile justice, and adult corrections programs, and we include our initial reviews of prison sentencing and policing.

As with our previous lists, we find that a number of public policies can reduce crime and are likely to have benefits that exceed costs. We also find credible evidence that some policies do not reduce crime and are likely to have costs that exceed benefits. The legislature has previously used this type of information to craft policy and budget bills. This updated list is designed to help with subsequent budgets and policy legislation.

Tenth-Grade WASL in Spring 2006: Performance on Multiple-Choice and Open-Ended Questions by Student Subgroups

The 2006 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a “review and statistical analysis of Washington assessment of student learning [WASL] data” in order to “identify possible barriers to student success or possible causes of the lack of success.” This report examines the relationship between student performance on multiple-choice and open-ended questions on the 10th-grade WASL in spring 2006 by gender, race/ethnicity, language use, poverty status, and enrollment in special education.

Evidence-Based Programs to Prevent Children from Entering and Remaining in the Child Welfare System: Interim Report

The 2007 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to study evidence-based, cost-effective programs and policies to reduce the likelihood of children entering and remaining in the child welfare system, including both prevention and intervention programs.
The “bottom line” goal of the study is to provide the legislature with reliable estimates of the costs and benefits of prevention and intervention programs that are designed to reduce involvement in the child welfare system.

Increasing Earned Release from Prison: Impacts of 2003 Law on Recidivism and Criminal Justice Costs

The 2003 Washington State Legislature passed a bill that increased “earned release time” for certain types of offenders. The bill authorizes the Washington State Department of Corrections to release eligible offenders earlier if they have demonstrated good behavior in prison.

The 2003 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate whether the enacted changes in earned release have affected recidivism rates. This report is divided into four sections: background information,evaluation design, recidivism findings, and cost-benefit analysis.

Interpreting the Decline in Washington State's Welfare Caseload

In 1997, the Washington Legislature passed legislation creating WorkFirst, Washington’s welfare reform program and directs the Department of Social and Health Services to “implement strategies that will cause the number of(welfare) cases in the program to decrease by at least fifteen percent during the 1997-99 biennium and by at least five percent in the subsequent biennium.” Washington’s welfare caseload has decreased by 20% since the enactment of WorkFirst, although some of this decrease is due to factors other than the change in state welfare policy. This report discusses the factors that lead to declines in the welfare caseload and describes the focus of the legislatively directed evaluation of WorkFirst. It is provided as a supplement to the JLARC's November 1998 report of the implementation of WorkFirst around the state.

WorkFirst Client Activity and Service Flow

To examine the impact of WorkFirst activities and services on employment and welfare outcomes, it is necessary to understand the characteristics and patterns of client participation in the program over time. While in WorkFirst, clients may participate in a variety of activities and receive numerous services. This paper describes general WorkFirst program elements, illustrates the complex links between program elements using a client activity flow chart, and then summarizes general trends in client activity during the implementation phase of WorkFirst (August 1997 through December 1998).

Sexual Predator Commitment Laws

Nine states have statutes that authorize the confinement and treatment of highly dangerous sex offenders following completion of their criminal sentence: Arizona, California, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, New Jersey, North Dakota, Washington, and Wisconsin. These laws are commonly referred to as “sexual predator” laws. Other statutes authorize commitment and treatment for sex offenders as an alternative to sentencing. This paper reviews the four principle categories of civil commitment laws for dangerous sex offenders. Summaries of individual state statutes are also included.

Welfare Reform: Key Policy Decisions in 50 States

On August 22, 1996, the President signed into law The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). The new law contains strict work requirements, lifetime limits for welfare receipt, a performance bonus to reward states for moving welfare recipients into jobs, comprehensive child support enforcement, and assistance for families moving from welfare to work—including increased funding for child care and guaranteed medical coverage. This law also gives states wide latitude in designing their own programs. Washington State’s program under this law is called WorkFirst.

Legalization of Recreational Marijuana in Washington: Monitoring Trends in Use Prior to the Implementation of I-502

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy is directed to conduct a benefit-cost analysis of the implementation of I-502, which legalizes recreational cannabis use for adults within the state. As a preliminary step, we analyzed population-level data to begin monitoring four key indicators of cannabis use prior to implementation.

We used data from the 2002 to 2011 administrations of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health to examine trends in the prevalence of current cannabis use, lifetime cannabis use, age of initiation, and cannabis abuse or dependency. We examined these trends separately for youth and adults in Washington, and also provide estimates for Colorado (the other state that has legalized recreational cannabis use) and the rest of the United States (US).

Examining trends in this manner will allow us to monitor whether the implementation of I-502 appears to affect these key indicators of marijuana use over time. Although more sophisticated analyses will be required for us to evaluate the policy, these initial trends provide a baseline to compare future data against. The prevalence of cannabis use in the past 30 days—a key indicator of the proportion of people who are current cannabis users—appears to be on the rise in recent years among both youth and adults in Washington, Colorado, and the US. The other indicators of use appear to be relatively stable or increasing slightly over time. In general, the estimates from Washington are slightly higher than the US and slightly lower than Colorado.

We will continue to monitor these trends over time within the context of our larger benefit-cost analysis to examine whether the new policy appears to affect marijuana use rates within the state.

Inventory of Evidence-Based and Research-Based Programs for Adult Corrections

The 2013 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to (1) develop definitions for “evidence-based” and “research-based” and (2) create an inventory of evidence-based and research-based programs to be used by the Department of Corrections.

This report contains WSIPP’s definitions as well as an inventory of evidence-based and research-based programs for adult corrections.

The Effectiveness of Declining Juvenile Court Jurisdiction of Youth

In Washington State, the juvenile courts have jurisdiction over youth under the age of 18 who are charged with committing a crime. Under certain circumstances, however, the juvenile courts are declined jurisdiction and youth are automatically sentenced as adults.

For this report, we examined whether the automatic decline law results in higher or lower offender recidivism for those who were sentenced as adults by comparing recidivism rates of youth who were automatically declined after the 1994 law with youth who would have been declined had the law existed prior to that time.

The Effectiveness of Washington's State Need Grant Program: Final Evaluation Report

Washington’s State Need Grant (SNG) program provides tuition assistance to low-income undergraduate students attending higher education institutions in the state. In the past ten years, state SNG expenditures more than doubled from $136 million in 2003 to $303 million in 2012. Last year (2012-13), about 74,000 students received an SNG (among 106,000 eligible students).

This report assesses the effectiveness of the SNG program in improving enrollment and degree completion outcomes. We find that for students with the lowest family incomes, receipt of State Need Grants is associated with higher re-enrollment and completion rates. Specifically, a 25% change in the SNG award amount would result in a 2 to 4 percentage point change in student re-enrollment and a 4 to 8 percentage point change in completion rates for the lowest income students.

The State Need Grant represents just one of several sources of financial aid that undergraduate students may receive. We examine the interactions between the SNG and other sources of aid and the relationship between overall aid and the student’s cost of attendance. SNG award amounts are based on a student’s family size and family income level. This report looks at how alternative awarding strategies may impact the number of students receiving a grant and the average value of those awards.

Collaborative Primary Care: Preliminary Findings for Depression and Anxiety

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) was directed by the 2013 Legislature to prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices for prevention and intervention services for adult behavioral health. This brief report presents our preliminary findings on collaborative primary care for depression and anxiety. Final results for collaborative care will be published in May 2014.

Early Childhood Education for Low-Income Students: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis

WSIPP analyzed how various approaches to early childhood education (ECE) for low-income children impact student outcomes and whether benefits exceed costs. We examined three types of programs: state and district pre-kindergarten, the federal Head Start program, and “model” programs.

To investigate, we conducted a systematic review of research by collecting all studies we could find on the topic. We screened for scientific rigor and only analyzed studies with strong research methods. We identified 49 credible evaluations of whether the three types of ECE for low-income children have a cause-and-effect relationship with student outcomes. The studies in our review measured academic as well as social and emotional development outcomes; a few studies also measured longer term outcomes including crime and teen births.

To view the final report for WSIPP's 2013 legislative ECEAP assignment, click here.

Full-Day Kindergarten: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis

WSIPP updated its 2007 analysis of the research evidence regarding full-day kindergarten. Over half of Washington’s public school kindergarteners attend full-day programs, and the state is expanding funding for this option. In this report, we analyze average impacts on student outcomes from full-day kindergarten across the United States and elsewhere. We also examine whether benefits are likely to exceed costs.

To investigate, we conducted a systematic review of research by collecting all studies we could find on the topic. We screened for scientific rigor and only analyzed studies with strong research methods. We identified ten credible evaluations of full-day kindergarten’s cause-and-effect relationship with student test score outcomes. The studies estimate the relative impact of full-day in comparison with half-day programs.

Improvement in standardized test scores was the only outcome measured in the studies that we reviewed. Other outcomes of interest such as social and emotional learning and high school graduation have not been examined consistently in the research literature.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-based, Research-based, and Promising Practices for Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices
For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles
in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the third update to the September 30, 2012 publication. The accompanying report describes the inventory update process, as well as the ongoing technical assistance process by UW.

Predicting Criminal Recidivism: A Systematic Review of Offender Risk Assessments in Washington State

The 2009 Legislature required the Department of Corrections (DOC) to use a risk assessment, recommended by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP), which has the highest predictive accuracy for recidivism.

To complete this task, WSIPP employed a systematic research approach. We reviewed the research literature on risk assessments and found five that have been tested on adult offenders in Washington. Among the five options, our review indicates that, to date, the Static Risk and Offender Needs Guide-Revised (STRONG-R) has the highest predictive accuracy of criminal recidivism.

Medical Marijuana: Access and Regulations in Washington State

In 1998, Washington State voters legalized the use of medical marijuana for certain medical purposes. Very little is known about patient access to medical marijuana and other implications of the law. At the local level, some cities and counties have prohibited collective cultivation of medicinal marijuana. Most Washington residents, however, live in areas that allow collective gardens.

This report describes local regulations regarding medical marijuana.

Inventory of Evidence-based, Research-based, and Promising Practices: Prevention and Intervention Services for Adult Behavioral Health

The 2013 Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to create, in consultation with the Department of Health and Social Services (DSHS), University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (EBPI), University of Washington Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), and the Washington Institute for Mental Health Research and Training (WIMHRT), an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices. The legislation also directs DSHS to use the inventory to develop a behavioral health improvement strategy and report the strategy to the governor and legislature.

This report describes the inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices in adult mental health and chemical dependency services.

Initial Inventory of Evidence- and Research-Based Practices: Washington's K–12 Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help underachieving students through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to prepare an inventory of evidence-based and research-based effective practices, activities, and programs for use by school districts in LAP and to update the inventory each two years thereafter.

This report describes the initial inventory of evidence-based and research-based practices for use in LAP.

Preventing Youth Substance Use: A Review of Thirteen Programs

Initiative 502, passed by Washington voters in November 2012, legalized recreational marijuana use for adults in the state. The initiative directed WSIPP to evaluate the policy by considering benefits and costs across a number of key areas including public health, public safety, and criminal justice.

As part of this assignment, we reviewed the evaluation literature on 13 youth prevention programs. These programs are on the state Department of Behavioral Health and Recovery’s preliminary list of evidence-based programs with marijuana prevention outcomes.

To view an update to this report, please click here.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices for Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices
For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles
in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the fourth update to the September 30, 2012 publication. The accompanying report describes the inventory update process, as well as the ongoing technical assistance process by UW.

Updated Inventory of Evidence- and Research-Based Practices: Washington's K‑12 Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help underachieving students through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to prepare an inventory of evidence-based and research-based effective practices, activities, and programs for use by school districts in LAP and to update the inventory each two years thereafter.

This report describes the updated inventory of evidence-based and research-based practices for use in LAP.

Preventing and Treating Youth Marijuana Use: An Updated Review of the Evidence

Initiative 502, passed by Washington voters in November 2012, legalized recreational cannabis use for adults in the state. The initiative directs WSIPP to evaluate the policy in a series of reports between 2015 and 2032.

As part of this assignment, we reviewed the evaluation literature on 23 youth marijuana prevention and treatment programs. This review updates an earlier report that focused on a subset of the programs; to view the initial report click here.

Preventive Oral Health Interventions: A Review of the Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy's (WSPP)Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project of the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain public health, health care, and other topics.

WSIPP conducted literature reviews on five dental topics: fluoride varnish, sealants, community water fluoridation, mid-level dental providers, and preventive dental visits. We found sufficient rigorous evaluations to analyze the effect of three of the five oral health interventions on tooth decay: fluoride varnish, sealants, and community water fluoridation.

Family Assessment Response in Washington's Child Protective Services: Interim Report

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy was directed by the 2012 Legislature to evaluate the Family Assessment Response by December 1, 2016. In this interim report we provide a brief background on the new system, describe the way the model is being implemented in Washington State, and outline our evaluation approach.

The final report was published in November 2017.

Performance-Based Contracting for Family Support and Related Services: Preliminary Report

The 2009 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to evaluate the extent to which new contracting arrangement within DSHS increased the use of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and whether it has improved outcomes for children. In this preliminary report, we provide a brief legislative history and synopsis of recent developments in DSHS’ movement toward implementing performance-based contracting.
The original legislation required a final report due June 30, 2016. The 2016 Legislature amended WSIPP's assignment by extending the final report date to April 1, 2023. The 2018 Legislature repealed several laws related to performance-based contracting, including WSIPP's final report.

Outcome Evaluation of Washington State's Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program

The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct an outcome evaluation of Washington State's early childhood education and assistance program (ECEAP). The program provides educational instruction, as well as family support and health and nutrition services, to preschool-aged children from low-income families.

WSIPP developed a statistical model to determine whether attending ECEAP had any impact on student academic outcomes. We found that ECEAP has a positive impact on third, fourth, and fifth grade test scores. This is our final report for WSIPP's 2013 legislative ECEAP assignment; to view the initial report click here.

Washington's Residential Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative: Recidivism & Cost Analysis

The 2014 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to examine the Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative (DOSA) for offenders sentenced to residential treatment in the community.

Residential DOSA was created by the 2005 Legislature as an alternative to prison for offenders with substance abuse problems. When ordered by a court, an offender’s sentence is reduced in exchange for completing chemical dependency treatment.

When possible, WSIPP conducts benefit-cost analysis to understand the long-term impacts of policies. In addition to residential DOSA’s effect on recidivism, research indicates that crime is avoided through confinement, known as “incapacitation.” We cannot empirically estimate the extent to which a residential treatment facility itself incapacitates offenders. Thus, we are unable to determine the degree to which the benefits from the favorable recidivism reduction of residential DOSA would be offset by the increased costs of non-confinement.

Tobacco and E-Cigarette Prevention: What Works?

The 2014 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to identify programs and policies that can decrease tobacco and e-cigarette use and yield the greatest return on investment. WSIPP employed its standard approach to reviewing research evidence and conducting benefit-cost analysis.

We identified 40 topics with research of sufficient rigor to allow us to draw conclusions about effectiveness. Of the 40, we found that 33 produce, on average, reductions in tobacco use. We identified a few programs that have undesirable effects on outcomes.

Our findings apply to tobacco prevention and cessation strategies. For e-cigarettes, unfortunately, we were unable to locate any rigorous evaluations that measure the impact of prevention strategies. In this report we summarize state regulations as of October 2014 related to e-cigarettes.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: A Review of the Evidence

WSIPP’s Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics. An important goal is to determine whether there are strategies that can help states control Medicaid and other health care costs.

This report reviews evidence on six topics: “lifestyle” programs designed to prevent diabetes; behavioral interventions to reduce obesity; smoking cessation during pregnancy; transitional care to prevent hospital readmissions; patient-centered medical homes; and programs to reduce avoidable emergency department visits.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-based, Research-based, and Promising Practices: Prevention and Intervention Services for Adult Behavioral Health

The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to create, in consultation with the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS), University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (EBPI), University of Washington Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), and the Washington Institute for Mental Health Research and Training (WIMHRT), an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices.

The initial inventory of interventions and policies in adult mental health and chemical dependency services was published in May 2014. To view the May 2014 results, click here.

While we were not directed by the legislature to update this inventory, a WSIPP Board-approved contract with the Pew-MacArthur Results First Initiative enabled WSIPP to review four additional programs and update the literature on supported housing for chronically homeless adults.

Diabetes Prevention Program: A Review of the Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy's (WSIPP) Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics. The Pew-MacArthur Results First Initiative identified diabetes prevention as an important health care issue for states. One important goal is to determine whether diabetes prevention policies can help states control Medicaid and other health care costs.

We reviewed credible research studies from the United States and elsewhere to determine whether lifestyle programs can achieve these results. We find that, on average, the programs have significant effects on diabetes incidence, weight loss, and certain risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

Inpatient Psychiatric Capacity and Utilization in Washington State

The 2014 Washington State legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to “complete a comprehensive assessment of the utilization and capacity needs of crisis mental health services” and provide “an update to statewide utilization and capacity figures for evaluation and treatment facilities, inpatient psychiatric beds, and regional support network-funded crisis facilities.” This assignment follows a 2011 WSIPP report that examined the impact of new provisions to Washington State’s involuntary treatment act on psychiatric bed utilization; to view the 2011 report, click here.

This report details the historical and current availability of psychiatric treatment beds.

Patient-Centered Medical Homes: A Review of the Evidence

Reducing Hospital Readmissions: A Review of the Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy's (WSIPP) Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur WSIPP’s Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics. The Pew-MacArthur Results First Initiative identified the goal of reducing hospital readmissions as an important health care challenge for states.

For this report, we reviewed the national and international evaluation literature to determine whether transitional care programs have been shown to reduce hospital readmissions. Components of transitional care include coaches, patient education, medication reconciliation, individualized discharge planning, enhanced provider communication, and patient follow-up after discharge.

What Works and What Does Not? Benefit-Cost Findings from WSIPP

For the last 20 years, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) has conducted systematic evidence reviews and economic analysis on a variety of topics for the Washington State Legislature. Over time, we have improved and refined the methods we use to conduct this research.

When WSIPP undertakes an economic analysis at the direction of the legislature, we use a standardized set of procedures to collect and analyze research literature. We then apply consistent methods to translate the research findings to dollars and cents, asking, “What are the overall benefits and costs?” of each program or policy option. Finally, we use information about the uncertainty in the research findings and economic assumptions to compute the risk associated with each policy option.

The primary goal of this research is to provide the legislature with objective information about the long-term economic consequences of each program or policy option reviewed. In this report, we summarize our current findings.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: Benefit-Cost Findings

WSIPP’s Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics. An important goal is to determine whether there are strategies that can help states control Medicaid and other health care costs.

This report reviews evidence on five topics: “lifestyle” programs designed to prevent diabetes; behavioral interventions to reduce obesity; transitional care to prevent hospital readmissions; patient-centered medical homes to reduce health care costs; and programs to reduce avoidable emergency department visits.

Updated Inventory of Evidence- and Research-Based Practices: Washington's Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help underachieving students through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to prepare an inventory of evidence-based and research-based effective practices, activities, and programs for use by school districts in LAP and to update the inventory each two years thereafter.

This report describes the second update to the inventory of evidence-based and research-based practices for use in LAP.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-based, Research-based, and Promising Practices For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

Involuntary Civil Commitments: Common Questions and a Review of State Practices

The 2014 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to investigate state practices regarding different aspects of the involuntary commitment process. This paper discusses common questions related to civil commitments and includes detail on commitment laws in each state.

I-502 Evaluation Plan and Preliminary Report on Implementation: First Required Report

Initiative 502, passed by Washington voters in November 2012, legalized the limited adult possession and private consumption of cannabis, as well as its licensed production and sale. The initiative directs WSIPP to evaluate the impact of the law in a series of reports between 2015 and 2032.

It is too early in the history of I-502 to evaluate outcomes. This first required report describes the research plan for the overall study and presents preliminary data on the status of implementation of the law as of June 30, 2015. Ultimately, WSIPP’s evaluation will include a full descriptive study of implementation; an outcome study to identify causal effects of the law on a range of outcomes (e.g., substance use and abuse, health, criminal justice, traffic safety); and a benefit-cost analysis of the net economic impact of the law.

Washington's Coordination of Services Program for Juvenile Offenders: Outcome Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis

Coordination of Services (COS) is an educational program for low-risk juvenile offenders that provides information about services available in the community. The program is designed to help juvenile offenders avoid further involvement with the criminal justice system. COS currently serves about 600 youth per year in Washington State.

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) first evaluated COS in 2004 following its first year of implementation. As part of ongoing work to identify research- and evidence-based programming in juvenile justice, WSIPP re-evaluated COS to determine its current impact on recidivism.

Based on the results from both of WSIPP’s evaluations of COS, we estimate that the program reduces recidivism by about 3.5 percentage points (from 20% to 16.5%).

Assessing the Risk of Criminal Offense for Washington's Involuntary Treatment and Forensic Commitment Populations

The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to develop a risk assessment for patients in the state’s involuntary mental health treatment system.

In Washington State, formal risk assessments have been used to predict the risk of criminal recidivism among juvenile and adult offenders. This report finds that the existing Static Risk Assessment (SRA), used by courts and corrections in Washington for criminal populations, can also serve as a valid tool for determining the level of risk for adults with involuntary civil commitments and forensic competency evaluations. Results indicate that the adapted SRA described in this report has reasonable predictive accuracy for both the civil and forensic populations.

Washington's Involuntary Treatment Act: Use of Non-Emergent Petitions and Less Restrictive Alternatives to Treatment

Washington State’s Involuntary Treatment Act establishes a process under which individuals may be committed by the courts for mental health evaluation and treatment. An involuntary treatment detention may be initiated if an individual is determined by a designated official to be gravely disabled or poses a danger to self or others as a result of a mental illness.

The 2015 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to examine two aspects of Washington State's involuntary commitment process: the use of non-emergent petitions for initial detention and less restrictive alternative orders for outpatient treatment. Our findings are based on a review of available data and an online survey of legal and treatment professionals.

Workforce Development Programs: A Review of the Evidence

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP's benefit-cost analysis to workforce development programs.

This report reviews the evidence on workforce programs in three broad program categories: 1) job training and work experience, 2) job search and placement assistance, and 3) case management.

The King County Education and Employment Training (EET) Program: Outcome Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis

Education and Employment Training (EET) is a program, currently operating exclusively in King County, for juvenile offenders at moderate- to high-risk to re-offend.

In 2010, EET was designated a “promising program” by the Community Juvenile Accountability Act oversight committee. At that time, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy agreed to evaluate the program when enough time had passed to measure the program’s effect on recidivism. This study compares recidivism rates for youth served by EET to that of similar juvenile offenders served by other court programs in Pierce and Snohomish Counties.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: December 2015 Update

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics.

We present findings for four new topics: 1) hospital–based programs to reduce Cesarean sections; 2) school-, workplace-, and community-based obesity prevention programs; 3) accountable care organizations; and 4) patient cost sharing. We also summarize prior findings for six topics: 1) “lifestyle” programs designed to prevent diabetes; 2) behavioral interventions to reduce obesity in adults and children; 3) transitional care to prevent hospital readmissions; 4) patient-centered medical homes to reduce health care costs; 5) programs to reduce avoidable emergency department visits; and 6) smoking cessation programs in pregnancy.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: Technical Appendix

The Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to “calculate the return on investment to taxpayers from evidence-based prevention and intervention programs and policies." Additionally, WSIPP’s Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics.

We provide extensive discussions of interventions, methodological issues, and meta-analytic findings for six topics in this appendix. These topics include: 1) diabetes prevention, 2) Cesarean section reduction, 3) transitional care, 4) patient-centered medical homes, 5) accountable care organizations, and 6) patient cost sharing.

Options for Higher Education Tuition Growth Factors

The 2015 Washington State Legislature reduced public resident undergraduate tuition in 2015 and limited future tuition increases to no more than the average annual percentage growth in Washington’s median hourly wage. The legislature also directed WSIPP to examine how this median hourly wage “growth factor” will affect tuition at the state’s public colleges and universities and to study alternative metrics for limiting tuition increases. This report describes alternative tuition growth factors including hourly wages, total income, and inflation indices. We also discuss a potential growth factor related to student affordability as directed in legislation.

This report was revised in April 2016 to correct community and technical college tuition data.

Hazardous Materials Incident Management in Washington State

This is a descriptive report of hazardous materials incident management in Washington State. It is in response to a request from Senate Majority Leader, R. Ted. Bottiger.

The study includes the following:

A description of present policies and procedures for the management of materials incidents
Identification of potential gaps and overlaps in present policy; and
Identification of the major procedural issues which arise because of policy gaps or overlaps.

Updated Inventory of Evidence- and Research-Based Practices: Washington's Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help underachieving students through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to prepare an inventory of evidence-based and research-based effective practices, activities, and programs for use by school districts in LAP and to update the inventory each two years thereafter. This report describes the third update to the inventory of evidence-based and research-based practices for use in LAP.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Researched-Based, and Promising Practices: For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

Graduation, Reality, and Dual-role Skills (GRADS) Program for Pregnant and Parenting Teens: Outcome Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy's (WSIPP) Board of Directors approved a contract between WSIPP, the Department of Health, and the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction to evaluate outcomes and conduct a benefit-cost analysis of the GRADS program.

GRADS is a K–12 program for pregnant and parenting teens that focuses on helping students take on the "dual role" of student and parent and prepare them for the world of work. In this evaluation, we compare teen mothers that participated in GRADS to a group of similar teen mothers from districts that did not offer the program.

Based on the results of our analysis, we estimate that GRADS participants have a 10.6 percentage point higher rate of high school graduation by age 22 and a 6.5 percentage point higher rate of postsecondary course enrollment by age 24.

Interim Report to the Education Funding Task Force: K–12 Public School Staff Compensation Analysis

Updated Inventory of Evidence-based, Research-based, and Promising Practices: Prevention and Intervention Services for Adult Behavioral Health

The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to create, in consultation with the Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS), University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (EBPI), University of Washington Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute (ADAI), and the Washington Institute for Mental Health Research and Training (WIMHRT), an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices.

The initial inventory of interventions and policies in adult mental health and chemical dependency services was published in May 2014. To view the May 2014 results, click here. An update to this inventory was published in January 2015.

While we were not directed by the legislature to update this inventory, a WSIPP Board-approved contract with the Division of Behavioral Health and Rehabilitation at the Department of Social and Health Services enabled WSIPP to review fourteen additional programs and update previously reviewed programs.

Final Report to the Education Funding Task Force: K–12 Public School Staff Compensation Analysis

The 2016 Washington State Legislature created the Education Funding Task Force to make recommendations to the legislature regarding the state’s program of basic education. To inform the Task Force’s work, WSIPP was directed to contract with an independent consultant to collect and analyze K-12 public school staff compensation data. The consultant’s final report examines the amount and uses of compensation paid in addition to basic education salary allocations, market rate salaries, and potential local labor market adjustments. The report is in PowerPoint format as submitted to the Task Force on November 15, 2016. The technical appendix provides additional detail on the data collection and analysis methods.

The consultant provided data files containing supplemental pay information submitted by school districts. The files are organized by staff type and can be downloaded by clicking on the relevant link below. The files have been consolidated, cleaned, and standardized from the original submissions. Employee names and certificate numbers have been removed and replaced by a unique research identification number. A description of the data collection process can be found in the report and technical appendix.

Evaluation of Policy Options for Increasing the Availability of Primary Care Services in Rural Washington State

The 2015 Washington State Legislature asked WSIPP to contract with RAND to examine policy options for increasing the availability of primary care services in Washington.

These policy options include opening the new Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine at Washington State University in 2017; increasing the number of primary care residency positions in the state; expanding educational loan-repayment incentives to encourage primary care physicians to practice in rural Washington; increasing Medicaid payment rates for primary care physicians in rural Washington; and encouraging the adoption of alternative models of primary care, such as medical homes and nurse-managed health centers, that reallocate work from physicians to nurse practitioners (NPs) and physician assistants (PAs). RAND Corporation researchers projected the effects that these and other policy options could have on the state's rural primary care workforce through 2025. They project a 7% decrease in the number of rural primary care physicians and a 5% decrease in the number of urban ones. None of the policy options modeled in this report, on its own, will offset this expected decrease by relying on physicians alone. However, combinations of these strategies or partial reallocation of rural primary care services to NPs and PAs via such new practice models as medical homes and nurse-managed health centers are plausible options for preserving the overall availability of primary care services in rural Washington through 2025.

RAND's report is available below and can be accessed by clicking here.

Crisis Mental Health Services and Inpatient Psychiatric Care: Capacity, Utilization, and Outcomes for Washington Adults

The 2014 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to complete a comprehensive assessment of the utilization and capacity needs of public crisis mental health services and conduct a longitudinal study of outcomes and public costs for adults receiving crisis response services. This report also summarizes capacity and utilization information for crisis mental health centers and inpatient psychiatric treatment facilities in Washington.

A preliminary report was published in January 2015.

Washington State Ferry Vessel Procurement

The 2015 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to conduct a benefit-cost analysis of the state's ferry vessel procurement practices. This report presents the results of a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and economic impact analysis (EIA) of a change in policy that shifts construction of ferries out of state. Neither analysis predicts a significant impact on Washington’s economy (either positively or negatively) from building ferries out of state.

Long-Acting Injectable Medications for Alcohol and Opioid Use Disorders: Benefit-Cost Findings

The 2015 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to review existing literature and begin a four-year study to evaluate outcomes regarding the cost-effectiveness of FDA-approved long-acting injectable medications, focusing on the benefits to persons in prison when they are released into the community.

We review the research evidence on the effectiveness of these medications in reducing substance abuse and recidivism rates. Where possible, we calculate whether the benefits of administering long-acting injectable medications outweigh the costs.

Interventions to Promote Postsecondary Attainment: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) Board of Directors authorized a collaborative project with the MacArthur Foundation and Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to higher education programs.

This report reviews the evidence on four types of interventions: 1) financial aid, 2) student advising, 3) interventions in the summer before college, and 4) dual enrollment.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: December 2016 Update

Updated Inventory of Programs for the Prevention and Treatment of Youth Cannabis Use

Initiative 502 (I-502) legalized recreational cannabis for adults in Washington State. The law directs the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a benefit-cost evaluation of the implementation of I-502.

In this report we summarize the research evidence for 51 programs for the prevention or treatment of youth cannabis use. The programs reviewed include those nominated by DBHR as well as programs from WSIPP’s current set of inventories that have evidence for cannabis outcomes.

Evaluation of the Foster Care Hub Home Model: Interim Report

The 2016 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to evaluate the “impact and cost effectiveness” of the hub home model. The hub home model, developed by The Mockingbird Society, is an approach to licensed foster care delivery where an experienced foster “hub home” provides activities and respite care for a group or “constellation” of nearby foster homes. The Mockingbird Society has operated Washington’s only hub home program, frequently referred to as the Mockingbird Family Model, on a small scale since 2004.

In this interim report, we briefly describe The Mockingbird Society’s hub home model operations in Washington State and outline our evaluation approach. A final report is due to the legislature by June 30, 2017. The study will include both an outcome evaluation and benefit-cost analysis to address the cost effectiveness of the hub home model in comparison to traditional foster care delivery.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: May 2017 Update

WSIPP’s Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts, with additional support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics.

We present new benefit-cost findings for interventions in four health care areas: 1) interventions to promote healthy pregnancy and birth; 2) therapies to treat opioid use disorder; 3) collaborative primary care; and 4) patient-centered medical homes. These benefit-cost findings build on our meta-analytic results released in December 2016.

As part of this work, we conducted a primary analysis of Washington State birth certificate and hospital discharge data to estimate the costs related to key birth indicators. This analysis is a new addition to WSIPP’s benefit-cost model and is discussed comprehensively in the Health Care Technical Appendix.

The Effectiveness of Reentry Programs for Incarcerated Persons: Findings for the Washington Statewide Reentry Council

The 2016 Washington State Legislature created the Statewide Reentry Council with the goals of reducing recidivism and improving other outcomes for people who return to the community after incarceration. This legislation also directed WSIPP to examine the effectiveness of reentry programs through a systematic review of the research literature.

Using WSIPP’s standardized procedures, we examined 59 programs to estimate their average effectiveness in reducing recidivism and improving other outcomes. In this report, we describe our meta-analytic and benefit-cost findings for these programs.

Employment and Wage Earnings in Licensed Marijuana Businesses

The Washington State Institute for Public Policy is directed to conduct an evaluation and benefit-cost analysis of the implementation of I-502, which legalizes recreational marijuana use for adults within the state. As a supplemental step, WSIPP's Board of Director's authorized WSIPP to analyze employment and wage data for employees in marijuana businesses.

We used data from The Washington State Liquor and Cannabis Board (LCB) combined with Unemployment Insurance (UI) wage data from the Washington State Employment Security Department (ESD) to analyze employment in Washington State businesses that have been issued marijuana licenses.

I-502 Evaluation and Benefit-Cost Analysis: Second Required Report

Initiative 502, passed by Washington voters in November 2012, legalized the limited adult possession and private consumption of cannabis, as well as its licensed production and sale. The initiative directs WSIPP to evaluate the impact of the law in a series of reports between 2015 and 2032.

In this second required report we address preliminary findings from analyses of effects of I-502 on non-monetary outcomes. We used two main analysis strategies. We examined the effect of I-502 enactment on cannabis abuse treatment admissions, comparing Washington to similar non-legalizing states before and after I-502 enactment. We also examined how local differences in the amount of legal cannabis sales affected cannabis abuse treatment admissions, youth and adult substance use, and drug-related criminal convictions.

These analyses represent an intermediate step towards the ultimate benefit-cost evaluation of I-502 that is required by the law.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices: For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

Family Assessment Response in Washington’s Child Protective Services: Effects on Child Safety and Out-of-Home Placement

The 2012 Washington State Legislature directed DSHS to create a two-track response system for accepted reports to Child Protective Services, where high risk families receive an investigation (formerly the only response) and low- to moderate-risk families receive Family Assessment Response (FAR). FAR provides a comprehensive assessment of child safety, risk of subsequent child abuse or neglect, and family strengths and needs. The assessment determines the need for services to address child safety and the risk of subsequent maltreatment but does not include a determination as to whether child abuse or neglect occurred.

WSIPP was directed to evaluate the effect of FAR on child safety measures, out-of-home placement rates, re-referral rates, and caseload sizes and demographics. In this final report, we evaluate the outcomes directed in the law, comparing outcomes for families who received FAR to those families who were eligible for FAR but who were served in offices where FAR had not yet been implemented. We also estimate the proportion of the caseload assigned to FAR after full implementation and the effect of FAR on receipt of paid in-home services.

A preliminary report was published in December 2014.

Funding for Safety and Security in Schools: A Fifty-State Review

The 2016 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate how Washington and other states fund school safety and security programs. To address this assignment, we conducted a 50-state review using data and information from legislation, enacted budgets, and agency websites from all states.

In this report we describe the varied state and federal funding sources that Washington and other states use to fund school safety and security-related activities. We provide a Washington-specific overview of school safety and security-related legislation, the main sources of school safety and security funding in the state, and what these sources are used for (e.g. security resource officers, emergency plans, surveillance equipment, etc.).

Paraeducators: Statewide Variation and Association with Academic Outcomes

The 2017 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to examine variation in the use of paraeducators across Washington, how paraeducators impact students’ academic outcomes, and what the national research says about the effectiveness of paraeducators in improving student outcomes.

We focused our analyses on paraeducators in Washington who perform teaching activities, whom we refer to as instructional aides. Using Washington State data, we used a fixed effects regression model to examine which factors, if any, are associated with the use of instructional aides and whether instructional aides are associated with school-level student outcomes.

Evaluation of the 2016 Truancy Prevention and Intervention Act: Initial Report

Washington State has compulsory school attendance laws that require school-aged children to attend school and mandate how schools and courts must respond to unexcused absences. These laws establish a series of escalating interventions that can ultimately result in truant students facing legal consequences, including detention.

The 2016 and 2017 Washington State Legislature modified these requirements. Some significant changes included increasing the information provided to parents about truancy, requiring schools to use formal assessments of students and data-informed steps to address truant behavior, mandating the use of community truancy boards (CTBs), and requiring courts to try alternative methods before ordering detention.

The Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate the effectiveness of the 2016 act. In this initial report, we outline the evaluation plan and identify potential data gaps. The final report, due January 2021, will describe changes in CTBs, truancy petition characteristics and outcomes, and student academic outcomes using a combination of descriptive and quasi-experimental methods. If possible, the analysis will include a meta-analysis evaluating the effectiveness of truancy and drop-out prevention programs.

Evaluation of the Foster Care Hub Home Model: Outcome Evaluation

The 2016 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate the “impact and cost effectiveness” of the hub home model. The hub home model (HHM), developed by The Mockingbird Society, is an approach to licensed foster care delivery wherein an experienced foster “hub home” provides activities, support, and respite care for a group or “constellation” of nearby foster homes. The Mockingbird Society has operated Washington’s only hub home program, frequently referred to as the Mockingbird Family Model, on a small scale since 2004.

WSIPP was directed to evaluate effects of the HHM on children’s safety, placement stability, and permanency, and—if possible—to address sibling connections and caregiver retention. In this final report, we evaluate these outcomes directed by law, as well as an additional outcome: runaways from care.

An interim report was published in January 2017.

In January 2018, we updated our findings with a supplemental report on benefit-cost results, incorporating effects on a broader range of outcomes, such as high school completion, arrests, and behavioral health.

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Programs for Adult Corrections

The 2013 Washington State Legislature passed a bill to facilitate the use of evidence-based programs in adult corrections. The legislature directed WSIPP to define the terms “evidence-based” and “research-based” and create an inventory of adult corrections programs classified as evidence-based or research-based.

WSIPP produced the first inventory of evidence-based and research-based programs for adult corrections in 2013. This is an update to the original inventory, classifying an additional 30 programs, for a total of 57 programs.

Interventions to Promote Postsecondary Attainment: April 2018 Update

In 2015, WSIPP's Board of Directors authorized a collaborative project with the MacArthur Foundation and Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to higher education programs.

WSIPP produced a first report of a review of the evidence and benefit-cost analysis for ten postsecondary interventions in December 2016. This report updates those previous findings and presents new findings for an additional ten programs in four topic areas: 1) financial interventions, 2) student support interventions, 3) brief information interventions, and 4) concurrent enrollment interventions.

Interventions to Promote Health and Increase Health Care Efficiency: April 2018 Update

WSIPP's Board of Directors authorized WSIPP to work on a joint project with the MacArthur Foundation and the Pew Charitable Trusts to extend WSIPP’s benefit-cost analysis to certain health care topics. In this report, we present findings on interventions to promote health and increase health care efficiency for older adults, including: 1) interventions to prevent falls and 2) interventions for older adults with dementia and/or their caregivers. We describe whether the interventions achieve effects on desired outcomes, and, if so, the magnitudes of those effects. We present benefit-cost results for these interventions, when possible.

Updated Inventory of Evidence- and Research-Based Practices: Washington’s K–12 Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help underachieving students through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to prepare an inventory of evidence-based and research-based effective practices, activities, and programs for use by school districts in LAP and to update the inventory each two years thereafter. This report describes the fourth update to the inventory of evidence-based and research-based practices for use in LAP.

Find previous versions of the LAP inventory with the following links: third update, second update, first update, and initial report.

Extended Foster Care in Washington State: Preliminary Report

The 2017 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to complete a study measuring the outcomes for youth who have received extended foster care services pursuant to RCW 74.13.031(11). The final study, due December 1, 2019, will include estimates of any savings to state and local governments and compare outcomes for youth who have received extended foster care services with youth who aged out of foster care when they turned 18. To the extent possible, the study will also include a comparison of extended foster care programs in other states and a review of the available research on those programs.

In this preliminary report, we provide background on the evolution of the program in Washington State and describe research on similar programs in other states. We then outline the approaches we will use to: (1) evaluate Washington’s extended foster care program and (2) estimate the benefits and costs of the program.

Evaluation of the Short-Term Foster Care Support Services Program: Preliminary Report

The 2017 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate a new short-term foster care support program. The program allows licensed foster parents to access temporary and flexible short-term support services provided by organizations in their local communities, with the overall goal of supporting the parental efforts of the foster parents. The short-term support does not include overnight assistance. This new program is differentiated from existing services by being potentially available to any licensed foster parent, whereas existing case aide services have been almost exclusively available to foster parents for specific children with high-level needs.

In this interim report, we briefly describe initial program implementation in two community-based non-profit organizations and outline WSIPP’s broad evaluation approach and potential data limitations.

A final report is due to the legislature by June 30, 2020. The outcome evaluation will, to the maximum extent possible, assess the impact of the short-term support services on the retention of foster homes and the number of placements a foster child receives while in out-of-home care, as well as the return on investment to the state.

Student Loan Bill of Rights: Student Loan Refinancing

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study on student loan refinancing, with particular attention to authorities that refinance student loans from the proceeds of tax-exempt bonds. In this report, we summarize federal guidance on using tax-exempt bonds for state loan refinancing programs and describe the structure and characteristics of the 15 student loan refinance programs run by other states, including their requirements for borrowers. We also estimate the potential savings to Washington undergraduate and graduate borrowers from refinancing their loans through a hypothetical state program. Finally, we consider the foregone value of federal loan repayment and forgiveness options to borrowers who choose to refinance using such a program.

Single-Payer and Universal Coverage Health Systems: Interim Report

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of single-payer and universal health coverage systems. This interim report addresses several aspects of the study assignment. We discuss universal health care coverage and policies that promote it, define single-payer health care and examine how it differs from our current multi-payer system, examine the effects of single-payer systems on health care costs, and summarize the challenges of implementing single-payer systems.

Our final report, due in June 2019, will address the remaining components of the study assignment. It will describe universal coverage and single-payer systems in other countries, and review evidence regarding differences across high-income countries in health care costs, health outcomes, access to care, and equity.

The Effectiveness of Washington’s College Bound Scholarship Program

The 2015 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate the effects of the College Bound Scholarship (CBS) program on education outcomes. The CBS program is an early commitment program that provides financial assistance to low-income undergraduate students. At public institutions, CBS covers full tuition and fees, plus a book stipend. Eligible students at corresponding private institutions receive the equivalent dollar value. To receive the scholarship, students must sign a pledge in middle school promising to graduate high school with at least a 2.0 GPA and no felony convictions and apply for federal or state financial aid. Students who complete the pledge requirements and have family incomes at or below 65% of the state median family income during college can receive their full CBS award. The program started in the 2007-08 academic year with the first CBS cohort entering college in the 2012-13 academic year.

This report describes our findings of the effectiveness of the College Bound Scholarship program on education outcomes for students attending Washington public schools in middle school. We analyze the effects of pledge eligibility and signing the College Bound pledge in middle school, CBS eligibility at the end of high school, and CBS receipt in the first year of college on secondary and postsecondary outcomes at public institutions in Washington.

In February 2019, we updated our main findings with a supplemental report using data from the National Student Clearinghouse’s StudentTracker service. This supplemental report evaluates the effects of the CBS program on enrollment and graduation across all institutions, including outcomes at private institutions in Washington and public and private institutions outside of Washington.

An Evaluation of National Board-Certified Teachers in Washington and Review of Financial Incentives in Other States

The 2017 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to study several aspects of National Board Certification. Board Certification is a voluntary and nationally recognized teaching credential. Some states provide additional benefits and financial incentives to Board-certified educators. In Washington, Board-certified teachers are eligible for an incentive of about $5,000 per year. Board-certified teachers working in high-poverty schools can receive an additional $5,000 per year through the state’s Challenging Schools Bonus (CSB) program. This report describes findings from a 50-state review of incentive programs similar to Washington’s CSB program. We also describe meta-analytic findings of the effect of exposure to a National Board-certified teacher on student outcomes, results from an analysis on retention among Board-certified teachers in Washington, as well as the effect of the creation of the CSB program on Board-certified teachers working in high-poverty schools.

Updated Inventory of Programs for the Prevention and Treatment of Youth Cannabis Use

Initiative 502 (I-502) legalized recreational cannabis for adults in Washington State. The law directs a portion of cannabis revenues to be spent on substance abuse prevention and treatment services that have been demonstrated to be effective. Specifically, state law requires at least 85% of programs funded by cannabis revenues to be evidence-based or research-based and up to 15% to be promising practices. In this inventory, we rate the research evidence for programs intended for the prevention or treatment of youth substance use, and we identify those specifically effective for marijuana. The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to update this inventory. This is the third update in the series.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices: For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”
The bill directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This eighth update to the September 30, 2012 publication includes recent reviews of children’s mental health interventions on the inventory. The accompanying report describes the inventory update process, as well as the ongoing technical assistance process by UW. Programs that are new to the inventory, or have a revised classification based on current evidence, are identified in the report.

Higher Education Funding: Models Used in Washington and Similar States

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to examine higher education funding models in states comparable to Washington. To fulfill this assignment, we interviewed key stakeholders from 11 states with similar higher education systems including Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin. In this report, we discuss the differences in budget-setting, tuition-setting, and salary-setting authorities by state. We describe the funding methods used for higher education appropriations and allocations in each state. Finally, we determine the proportions of overall higher education funding and higher education salary and benefit increases that come from each state’s general fund (or equivalent accounts).

Washington State Adult and Juvenile Recidivism Trends: FY 1995–FY 2014

Previous reports published by the Washington State Institute for Public Policy have shown a gradual decline in recidivism for adults released from prison through the 1990s and early 2000s. This report updates WSIPP’s 2011 review of recidivism trends for adults released from prison and expands the scope of our report to include youth populations and additional adult populations. Our analyses found gradual declines in overall recidivism for all four populations from FY 1995–FY 2014. However, examination of recidivism trends by type of recidivism, type of initial offense, and demographic characteristics indicate that changes in trends varied across sub-populations.

Measuring Youth Cannabis Use in Washington State

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct additional cannabis research, supplemental to the ongoing benefit-cost evaluation of cannabis legalization authorized by Initiative 502 in 2012. As part of this supplemental work, WSIPP was directed to examine current data collection methods measuring the use of marijuana by youth and potential ways to improve on these methods. In this report, we focused on the Washington Healthy Youth Survey, the primary source of data on cannabis use among Washington youth. We reviewed the evidence for harmful consequences of cannabis use focusing on how cannabis use was measured, and we examined recently developed surveys that reflect the state-of-the-art in survey measurement of marijuana use. With this information, we identified a set of potential improvements to the HYS while considering the practical limitations of revisions to an existing survey.

Single-Payer and Universal Coverage Health Systems: Final Report

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of single-payer and universal health coverage systems. Our interim report discussed policies to promote universal health care, outlined health care coverage and expenditures in Washington, examined potential effects of implementing single-payer health care, discussed challenges to implementing it, and summarized characteristics of national and state single-payer proposals.

Our final report examines universal coverage and single-payer systems in other high-income countries, which have achieved universal coverage and substantially lower health care spending than the US. These other countries, both single- and multi-payer, have mechanisms to control the prices of medical services and pharmaceuticals. They have lower insurer administrative costs and, in the case of single-payer countries, lower provider administrative burdens. These countries also have, to varying degrees, limited the utilization of some high-margin procedures and advanced imaging and discouraged the diffusion of medical technologies and drugs that have modest or uncertain effectiveness.

Individuals in these countries have fewer financial barriers to health care and more equitable access to care across income groups than in the US. Finally, the higher US health expenditures do not translate to better health outcomes and quality of care for the entire population.

Step Therapy and Step Therapy Exceptions: A Review of the Research Evidence and State Policies

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct evidence reviews on step therapy and step therapy exceptions and to summarize step therapy exceptions codified in other states. One goal of the assignment is to determine whether this type of prescription drug utilization management practice has an effect on health outcomes. In this report, we describe the results of our evidence reviews on step therapy and step therapy exceptions and describe the limitations of the research evidence. We also summarize the step therapy exceptions codified in other states and describe Washington’s codified step therapy exception.

Washington State's Aggression Replacement Training for Juvenile Court Youth: Outcome Evaluation

In 2018, WSIPP’s Board of Directors approved a contract with the Washington State Juvenile Rehabilitation Administration in conjunction with the Community Juvenile Accountability Act Oversight Committee to evaluate a juvenile court evidence-based program. The contract required WSIPP to evaluate the effectiveness of the Washington State Aggression Replacement Training (WSART) program at reducing recidivism for court-involved youth. In addition to evaluating the overall effects, WSIPP was asked to evaluate for whom the program was most effective and under what conditions the program was most effective. This report evaluates the effects of WSART in Washington State juvenile courts from 2005 to 2016. To the extent possible, we evaluated the varying effects of WSART for subpopulations including males and females; White, Black, and Hispanic youth; younger youth and older youth; high-risk youth and moderate-risk youth; and youth assessed using the BOT and youth assessed using the PACT. Finally, we evaluated differences in the effects of WSART by characteristics of WSART program participation including trainer competence and program completion.

Suppressing Illicit Cannabis Markets After State Marijuana Legalization

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct additional cannabis research, supplemental to the ongoing benefit-cost evaluation of cannabis legalization authorized by Initiative 502 in 2012. As part of the new assignments, WSIPP was directed to examine effective methods for suppressing unlicensed cultivation and distribution of marijuana in jurisdictions with legal markets. We found very little evidence on that topic. Instead, we identified numerous factors that could contribute to the survival of the illicit marijuana market in the context of legalization, such as continuing prohibitions in other states and regulations that reduce the competitive advantage of the legal market. We examined key regulatory features in the nine states with licensed non-medical cannabis supply systems and found that states varied widely in the level of restriction imposed on legal supply systems. We conclude by outlining a practical strategy for monitoring illicit market reductions as the state’s approach to legalization develops.

Dually Involved Females in Washington State: Outcomes, Needs, and Survey of Approaches to Serve This Population

The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a statewide study on the needs of girls and young women involved in both the juvenile justice and child welfare systems, referred to in the legislation as “dually involved females.”

This study compared dually involved females to dually involved males and to females with only juvenile justice involvement in criminal justice system involvement, mental health and substance abuse diagnoses and treatment, medical care, employment, homelessness, teen birth, and use of Temporary Assistance to Needy Families and the Supplemental Nutritional Assistance Program.

The study includes a survey of other states regarding systems to address and treat the needs of dually involved youth.

Early Childhood Education for Low-Income Students: A Review of the Evidence and Benefit-Cost Analysis UPDATE

The WSIPP Board of Directors and the 2019 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to update previous findings on early childhood education. In 2013, the legislature directed WSIPP to conduct an outcome evaluation and return on investment analysis of the state’s Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program (ECEAP). As part of that assignment, WSIPP produced a report summarizing the national research literature on the long-term effectiveness of early childhood education programs and conducting a benefit-cost analysis for these programs.

This report updates those previous findings and presents new findings for three types of programs: 1) state early childhood education programs targeting low-income children, 2) universal state early childhood education programs, and 3) Head Start.

We find that increases in academic achievement for participants in these programs are likely to produce long-term monetary benefits that outweigh the costs.

Open Educational Resources & The Cost of Required Course Materials in Four-Year Universities

The 2018 Washington State Legislature assigned WSIPP to examine the per-student cost of required textbooks and course materials and the use of open educational resources (OER) at public four-year universities across the state. OER is an alternative model for course materials and relies on content that is free to use, alter, and distribute for educational purposes.

In this report, we estimate the average cost of required items, the average cost of required materials per course, and the average cost of required materials for students earning a bachelor’s degree. We found that, on average, students completing a bachelor’s degree at public universities in Washington were expected to spend approximately $2,734 on required textbooks and course materials.

We could not precisely measure the prevalence of OER use in Washington’s public four-year universities, because OER use has not been tracked systematically. Using data from campus book stores, we found that 26% of undergraduate courses required $0 of course materials. Relying on interviews, a review of available research, and additional analyses, we examined several potential practices for supporting OER use in four-year universities. We found that grant programs like Washington’s current OER Grant Pilot Program were a potentially cost-effective approach to supporting wider OER adoption in four-year universities.

Early Achievers Evaluation Report One: Background and Research Design

In the Early Start Act of 2015, the Washington State Legislature required child care and early learning providers who serve non-school aged children and receive state subsidies to participate in Early Achievers, the state’s quality rating and improvement system (QRIS). This legislation also directed WSIPP to examine the relationship between Early Achievers quality ratings and long-term outcomes for children who participate in state-subsidized child care and early learning programs. WSIPP is required to produce annual reports to the legislature from December 2019 through December 2022, and the final report must include a benefit-cost analysis of Early Achievers.

In this first report we present background information from a review of QRIS programs and evaluations in other states, and detail Early Achievers implementation, key program features, and summary ratings data. We also outline WSIPP’s research questions, planned research design, and data sources, and address study limitations.

Our review of the national QRIS child outcome evaluation literature indicates that other states have found limited, inconsistent relationships between quality ratings and outcomes for children. However, this body of research is in an early stage, which limits our confidence in the resulting conclusions.

WSIPP’s next report in the Early Achievers evaluation series, due in December 2020, will address the impact of Early Achievers during children’s pre-kindergarten year on outcomes in kindergarten, including kindergarten readiness assessed using the WaKIDS.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices: For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (UW) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the ninth update to the initial inventory published in 2012.

The accompanying report describes our standard process for evaluating and classifying research evidence, the process for adding new programs to the inventory, and the reasons that program classifications may change. Programs that are new to the inventory or have a revised classification based on current evidence are identified in the report.

Updated Inventory of Programs for the Prevention and Treatment of Youth Cannabis Use

Initiative 502 (I-502) legalized recreational cannabis for adults in Washington State. The law directs a portion of cannabis revenues to be spent on substance abuse prevention and treatment services that have been demonstrated to be effective. Specifically, state law requires at least 85% of programs funded by cannabis revenues to be evidence-based or research-based, and up to 15% to be promising practices.

In this inventory, we rate the research evidence for programs intended for the prevention or treatment of youth substance use, and we identify those specifically effective for reducing marijuana use. The 2018 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to update this inventory. This is the fourth update in the series.

Washington State’s Juvenile Justice System: Evolution of Policies, Populations, and Practical Research

Over the last 20 years, the Washington State Legislature has taken a number of steps to develop an “evidence-based” juvenile justice system. Through collaboration between the research community and policymakers, reforms have facilitated a significant shift in court practices and characteristics of the populations of court-involved youth.

Recent findings suggest that a new era of juvenile justice research is needed to identify how changes in justice-involved populations and court practices may affect the long-term effectiveness of juvenile court reforms. This report provides an overview of the evolution of legislative and administrative policies, justice-involved populations, and juvenile justice research over the last two decades. The report concludes with a discussion about pathways forward for Washington State’s policymakers and research community.

Updated Evidence Classifications for Select State-Funded Juvenile Justice Programs in Washington State: A Resource Guide

In 2019, WSIPP updated the full portfolio of juvenile justice meta-analyses, benefit-cost analyses, and the resulting evidence classifications. This work aligned with WSIPP’s ninth update of the Children’s Services Inventory (“the inventory”), published in December 2019. The inventory describes the research evidence and benefit-cost findings for a variety of programs in the areas of juvenile justice, child welfare, and children’s mental health, and classifies each program according to its level of evidence and benefit-cost findings.

WSIPP’s update to the inventory led to changes in the evidence classification for several juvenile justice programs operating in Washington State. Four programs previously classified as either evidence-based or research-based are now promising or null. This resource guide serves as a companion document to the inventory and as a resource for Washington State policymakers and practitioners to understand how changes in the meta-analyses and benefit-cost analyses of juvenile justice programs resulted in changes to evidence classifications.

In the guide, WSIPP explains the specific changes made to all meta-analyses and benefit-cost analyses of juvenile justice programs in 2019. Then, the guide provides details for several programs eligible for Washington State funding for youth involved in the juvenile courts or committed to a Juvenile Rehabilitation facility. For each eligible program, the guide reviews relevant changes to the content in the specific meta-analysis, changes to the calculations of meta-analytic results, changes made to the costs of the program, and changes made to WSIPP’s standard benefit-cost model. While WSIPP classifies a broad array of programs, and these evidence classifications are subject to change over time, this guide focuses specifically on changes to classifications for juvenile justice programs eligible for state dollars.

Extended Foster Care in Washington State: Final Report

The 2017 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a study of a policy allowing eligible foster youth to receive foster care services between the ages of 18 and 21.

We studied numerous outcomes for youth “aging out” of foster care as they transitioned to adulthood. Between 2006 and 2018, the percentage of youth receiving extended foster care (EFC) services increased from 5% to 80%.

Compared to non-participants, the average youth participating in EFC was more likely to be employed and have greater earnings. EFC also significantly reduced homelessness, receipt of public assistance, use of medical emergency departments, reduced diagnosis of substance abuse and treatment, and criminal convictions. We also found that EFC reduced the involvement of offspring in the child welfare system.

Our benefit-cost analysis found that the EFC program produces $3.95 of lifetime benefits for each $1 invested. Of the total benefits, 40% represents savings and revenue that would accrue to state, local, and federal governments.

In a survey of other states, we found that almost all states provide some foster care services after youth turn 18, although eligibility criteria vary.

Advanced Teacher Certification: A 50-State Review

The 2016 Legislature directed WSIPP to examine multiple policies related to advanced teacher certification that could impact the teacher workforce.

With various advanced teaching certificate policy changes in recent years, WSIPP was unable to analyze the effectiveness of specific policies toward expanding the educator workforce. However, in this report, we provide detailed background information on teachers with the professional certificates in Washington and conduct a 50-state review of certification-related policies that could impact teacher recruitment and retention in Washington and other states.

In 2019, nearly 25% of all classroom teachers in Washington held an advanced teacher certificate. However, since they became optional in 2017, the number of new certificates awarded has fallen by nearly 60%. A 50-state review identified 28 states with advanced teacher certificates. Washington is among the majority of these states in using National Board Certification as a requirement toward advanced certification and one of five using it as the primary path. Half of these states, including Washington, offer some sort of financial incentive for teachers to earn an advanced certificate.

Additionally, the review found that teachers in every state have earned micro-credentials, and 64% of states, including Washington, have micro-credential policies allowing them to be used toward some aspect of certification.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based and Research-Based Practices: Washington’s K–12 Learning Assistance Program

Washington State provides funding to school districts to help students who score below grade-level standards in English Language Arts (ELA) and mathematics through the Learning Assistance Program (LAP). Districts can use the funding for a variety of activities to support students including tutoring, extended learning time, educator professional development, and family engagement to name a few examples.

The 2013 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to develop an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising programs and practices for use by school districts in LAP. WSIPP was directed to update the inventory every two years thereafter. This report is the fifth update to the inventory and describes our standard process for evaluating and classifying programs, adding new programs to the inventory, and reasons why program classifications may change over time. We also identify several programs that are relevant to teaching and learning in a remote environment during the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), although that was not the focus of this update. Overall, for this 2020 update, we reviewed 18 programs, added two new programs to the inventory, and reclassified five programs included in previous inventory iterations.

Find previous versions of the LAP inventory with the following links: fourth update, third update, second update, first update, and initial report.

Updated Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Practices: For Prevention and Intervention Services for Children and Juveniles in the Child Welfare, Juvenile Justice, and Mental Health Systems

The 2012 Legislature passed E2SHB 2536 with the intention that “prevention and intervention services delivered to children and juveniles in the areas of mental health, child welfare, and juvenile justice be primarily evidence-based and research-based, and it is anticipated that such services will be provided in a manner that is culturally competent.”

The bill directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) and the University of Washington Evidence-Based Practice Institute (EBPI) to publish descriptive definitions and prepare an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices and services, and to periodically update the inventory as more practices are identified. This is the tenth update to the initial inventory published in 2012.

The accompanying report describes our standard process for evaluating and classifying research evidence, the process for adding new programs to the inventory, and the reasons that program classifications may change in the current iteration of the inventory. Programs that are new to the inventory or re-reviewed with current evidence are identified in the report.

Find previous versions of the Children's inventory with the following links: ninth update, eighth update, seventh update, sixth update, fifth update, fourth update, third update, second update, first update,and initial inventory.

Washington Offender Needs Evaluation (Washington ONE): Evaluating Community Contact Impacts

WSIPP’s Board of Directors approved a Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC) contract with WSIPP to examine the new DOC risk and needs assessment—the Washington ONE. In 2017, DOC transitioned to the Washington ONE for adults incarcerated in state facilities or under DOC supervision in the community. During the current phase of implementation, contact requirements for community supervision are based on an individual’s initial assessment and are not updated during regularly scheduled reassessments. We examined how the new assessment impacted risk level classification and corresponding contact requirements for community contacts and how these requirements would change if they were updated following reassessments. We found minimal differences between the contact requirements under the previous risk assessment system, the current Washington ONE assessment system, and a more dynamic Washington ONE assessment system. Our analysis found that contact requirements for some individuals would change if contact levels were updated following reassessments. However, we found that a similar number of individuals showed a reduction in risk level and contacts over time as the number of individuals showed an increase in risk level and contacts over time, resulting in little change in DOC’s workload associated with community contacts during the study period.

Involuntary Treatment Act for Substance Use Disorders in Washington State: First Preliminary Report

Before 2016, two separate systems existed for involuntary commitment of individuals in crisis due to mental health or substance use disorders. The 2016 Legislature passed E3SHB 1713—called Ricky's Law—to integrate both conditions into a statewide behavioral health system within Washington’s Involuntary Treatment Act (ITA). WSIPP is required to “evaluate the effect of the integration of the involuntary treatment systems for substance use disorders and mental health.”

In this initial report, we examine the broad changes to Washington’s ITA for substance use disorders that resulted from Ricky’s Law. We provide background on Washington’s behavioral health context and examine the main components of Ricky’s Law. Then, we outline our basic research strategy to examine the effectiveness of this multi-component law.

Our second and third reports are due in June 2021 and 2023. We will examine the impact of Ricky's Law on (1) client outcomes (e.g., substance use, overdose, death, employment, housing, and mental health services); (2) system outcomes; and (3) cost-effectiveness and efficiency of the integrated involuntary behavioral health treatment system.

An Evaluation of Resource and Assessment Centers (RAC): Outcome Evaluation

The Resource and Assessment Center (RAC) program provides short-term emergency crisis care to youth entering foster care in Washington. RAC facilities offer an initial placement option of up to 72 hours for youth ages birth through 12 years old. Two facilities, in Whatcom and Snohomish counties, respectively, operated RACs from 2015-2020 and have served over 1,100 youth.

The 2019 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate the RAC program. Our results indicate that compared to similar youth, those who were first placed in a RAC are more likely to spend their RAC and subsequent placements with a sibling. RAC youth are also more likely to be placed with a relative in their subsequent placement. RAC placement does not have long term effects on the number of placement events or the length of time youth spend in foster care.

Results also suggest that foster parents who received youth from a RAC were more likely than other similar foster parents who only received youth from other settings to retain their license for various follow-up periods.

Early Achievers Evaluation Report Two: Pre-Kindergarten Quality and Child Outcomes in Kindergarten

In this second report, we found that enrollment in a pre-kindergarten site that has an Early Achievers rating does not significantly predict kindergarten readiness for children in ECEAP or those receiving child care subsidy, although we do observe modest positive associations for children in ECEAP. Enrollment in a pre-kindergarten site that met minimum quality standards is a significant positive predictor of greater kindergarten readiness for children in ECEAP sites and for those with child care subsidies.

WSIPP’s next report in the Early Achievers evaluation series, due in December 2021, will examine variation in Early Achievers quality standard areas (e.g., learning environment and interactions, professional development) to predict child outcomes. Additionally, to the extent possible given data availability, we will address special topics questions such as infant-toddler care quality and later child outcomes.

An Evaluation of the 2016 Act to Promote Attendance and Reduce Truancy

Washington State has compulsory school attendance laws, which mandate how schools and courts respond to unexcused absences. The 2016 Washington State Legislature passed legislation that changed some truancy-related requirements and directed WSIPP to evaluate the effectiveness of the act. The legislation requires that students who receive a truancy petition are first diverted to a community truancy board for intervention before moving forward with hearings in a juvenile court. The new law also increased the prevention requirements of schools and made it more difficult for juvenile courts to order youth to detention in cases of truancy.

WSIPP found that access to community truancy boards increased following the law’s passage, although the interventions that youth receive vary significantly across the state. Schools continue to file truancy petitions at a low rate; less than a quarter of students who are required to receive a petition actually do so. We found no clear relationship between the legislation and student outcomes, i.e., reduced unexcused absences and dropout rates. However, the dropout rate for truant youth (both with and without a petition) slightly declined after the law was implemented. The percentage of youth being sent to juvenile detention for truancy also fell, although that decrease began prior to when the law was implemented.

Examining Washington State’s Sentencing Guidelines: A Report for the Criminal Sentencing Task Force

The Washington State Criminal Sentencing Task Force (CSTF) was directed to review the state’s sentencing laws. To better understand the landscape of sentencing in Washington and the potential impacts of reforming the state’s sentencing laws, the CSTF contracted with WSIPP to examine felony sentencing in Washington State Superior Courts. This report is intended to provide analytic data to assist with future policy discussions within the CSTF.

Using data from the Caseload Forecast Council, this report reviews the outcomes from FY 2019 felony sentences. Specifically, the report examines how standard, non-drug sentences vary across the current offense seriousness level-based sentencing guideline grid. The report also examines how sentences may vary across an alternative, felony class-based guideline grid.

This report includes an examination of racial disproportionality in sentencing outcomes for standard sentences in the current and alternative guideline grids and for non-standard sentences including enhancements, exceptional sentences, and sentencing alternatives.

In general, the report found that average sentence lengths and incarceration rates may decrease under a class-based grid. However, racial disproportionality in sentencing outcomes was present under both grid systems. The magnitude of racial disproportionality varied for different types of offenses and for different types of sentences.

Designated Crisis Responders and Ricky's Law: Involuntary Treatment Investigation, Decision, and Placement

Before 2016, two separate systems existed for the involuntary commitment of individuals in crisis due to mental health (MH) or substance use disorders (SUD). The 2016 Legislature passed E3SHB 1713—called “Ricky's Law”—to integrate both conditions into Washington’s existing Involuntary Treatment Act (ITA). The legislation required the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to evaluate the changes resulting from Ricky’s Law.

As part of the integration, Ricky’s Law (1) created the designated crisis responders (DCRs)—a single professional designation responsible for conducting all ITA investigations, both MH and SUD, and (2) established Secure Withdrawal Management and Stabilization (SWMS) facilities. WSIPP interviewed DCRs from across the state to learn about their experience when determining whether to detain people under Ricky’s Law and whether to place people in SWMS facilities.

This report—the second in a series of three— provides an in-depth look at the integrated ITA detention and placement processes from the DCR perspective. We present themes from interviews conducted with DCR managers and DCRs throughout Washington. The interviews provide an understanding of the mechanisms that may affect outcomes, provide an on-the-ground perspective of the implementation and ongoing application of Ricky’s Law, and inform our approach for the third report.

Postsecondary Program Participation and Completion Patterns Among Individuals Incarcerated in Washington State Prisons

Washington’s Department of Corrections (DOC) and State Board of Community and Technical Colleges (SBCTC) collaborate to provide educational programming to incarcerated individuals and formerly incarcerated individuals re-entering the community. Available educational programming includes adult basic education, workforce and vocational training, and Associate of Arts degrees, among other options.

In 2020, the Washington Student Achievement Council (WSAC), in partnership with DOC and SBCTC, received a grant from the Lumina Foundation to improve postsecondary credential outcomes for incarcerated and re-entering populations in Washington. As a part of this grant, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) was contracted by WSAC to examine the landscape of postsecondary correctional education programs in Washington.

This study presents an overview of the postsecondary correctional education system in Washington, with an examination of the patterns of enrollment in and completion of postsecondary programs for incarcerated individuals. We found that Black, Latino, and other people of color participated in correctional education programs at a greater rate than White individuals while incarcerated. Rates of retention and completion once enrolled were similar across all racial groups, although Black and Latino students were slightly less likely to complete their degree programs. These findings were consistent for both professional/technical degrees and academic transfer degrees.

This report also includes a review of national research literature identifying challenges that may inhibit participation in postsecondary programs and best practices that may promote access. We found that Washington already implements many useful practices, chiefly the coordination between the Department of Corrections, community colleges, and other stakeholders and reentry services for formerly incarcerated students. Though barriers to participation still exist, often around funding, eligibility, and course quality, we found that these challenges would not generally limit participation for incarcerated students of color uniquely. However, some policies, particularly those related to student eligibility factors, may indirectly contribute to inequities.

COVID-19 and Adult Criminal Justice: A Quantitative Look at Affected Systems

The COVID-19 pandemic led to abrupt changes in the operations of the adult criminal justice system. In this report, we describe how the flow of individuals through the adult criminal justice system has changed since the start of the pandemic by system component and by type of offense. We provide a high-level summary of the Washington State adult criminal justice system and discuss the decrease in measures of criminal justice processing at key stages of the system after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. We then discuss some additional changes to the criminal justice system since the end of calendar year 2020 and considerations for whether the system will return to processing the same number of individuals as it did before the pandemic.

Washington State Children and Youth Services Inventory: Investigating Use by State Agencies in Policy and Decision Making

To increase the use of evidence-based practices in prevention and interventions services for children and youth, the 2012 Washington State Legislature (E2SHB 2536) directed the creation of an inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising practices in child welfare, juvenile rehabilitation, and mental health (the children’s services inventory). The children’s services inventory has been published annually since 2012 with updated evidence reviews and with reviews of new programs to expand the inventory.

In 2021, DBHR commissioned WSIPP to study the inventory’s role in evidence-based practice (EBP) in Washington State. We reviewed the literature and conducted stakeholder interviews across service areas to gather feedback. In this report, we describe the children’s services inventory and summarize stakeholder descriptions of how the inventory is currently being used in child welfare, juvenile rehabilitation, and behavioral health treatment and prevention services. We share stakeholders’ perspectives on what is valued, as well as on how the inventory could be improved. Finally, we highlight stakeholders’ perceived barriers to EBP use in Washington. These barriers have implications for the utility of the inventory, as well as the potential to inform future work on availability and access to evidence-based public services for children and youth. Throughout, we emphasize themes that were present across all service areas and also note ideas unique to one service area.

The most current version of the children's services inventory is the tenth update, published in 2020.

Legal Financial Obligations in Washington State: Background, Statutes, and 50-State Review

Upon conviction for a crime in a trial court in the U.S., an individual may incur monetary sanctions as part of their sentence. These monetary sanctions, which can include fines, fees, restitution, and any surcharges associated with their case are commonly known as legal financial obligations (LFOs). The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to study LFOs.

In this preliminary report, WSIPP studied statutes that allow for the imposition of LFOs in Washington and how other states fund their court systems. The review of statutes found over 350 unique LFOs that can be imposed across Washington courts. Of those LFOs, four are mandatory for convictions in a superior court and three are mandatory for convictions in courts of limited jurisdiction. Our 50-state review of court funding and LFOs found that every state allows for the imposition of LFOs, but it is unclear how LFOs are connected to court funding in many states. The review also indicates that states operate and fund their court systems differently. Some rely more on state-level funding while others rely more heavily on local resources. Using 2019 U.S. Census Bureau data, we found that local funding accounts for a higher percentage of Washington’s judicial spending than in 41 other states. This report also provides a brief description of WSIPP’s intended research plan for the final report, due to the Legislature by December 1, 2022.

Washington Offender Needs Evaluation: Review and Examination of Reassessments

In December 2017, the Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC) implemented a new dynamic risk and needs assessment—the Washington Offender Needs Evaluation (Washington ONE). The Washington ONE is a dynamic risk and needs assessment used to inform case management for individuals under DOC jurisdiction.

The DOC contracted with WSIPP to review the literature on correctional risk assessments, including hierarchical classification systems. In addition, DOC asked WSIPP to examine the impact of reassessments on risk level classification changes since the instrument was introduced in 2017.

Our review of the literature found that the Washington ONE is generally consistent with national standards on the types of factors considered in the assessment. However, the hierarchical methods used to determine classifications are unique to Washington State. To date, information on the comparative accuracy of the Washington ONE is unavailable, but the report provides an overview of the national standards for reviewing accuracy and fairness in risk assessment instruments.

In general, most reassessments under the Washington ONE did not lead to a change in risk level classification (RLC). When reassessments did lead to a change, there were increases and decreases in RLC. Changes in RLC were driven by changes in many different domains. The report provides details about changes in RLC following reassessments by gender and by race.

Early Achievers Evaluation Report Three: Variation in Links between Quality and Kindergarten Readiness for Children with Childcare Subsidy

In the Early Start Act of 2015, the Washington State Legislature required child care and early learning providers who serve non-school-aged children and receive state subsidies to participate in Early Achievers, the state’s quality rating and improvement system (QRIS). This legislation also directed WSIPP to examine the relationship between Early Achievers quality ratings and long-term outcomes for children who participate in state-subsidized child care and early learning programs. WSIPP was required to produce annual reports to the legislature from December 2019 through December 2022; the final report must include a benefit-cost analysis of Early Achievers.

In the second report in this series, we found that enrollment in a pre-kindergarten site that met minimum Early Achievers quality standards positively predicts greater kindergarten readiness. In this third report, focusing on the sample of children with child care subsidy, we found that the positive relationship between enrollment in a site that met minimum quality standards and kindergarten readiness is driven by children with two or more years of enrollment in “at quality” care. Additionally, we found that the positive relationship between enrollment in care rated “at quality” and kindergarten readiness is strongest for children attending sites in neighborhoods with higher levels of community vulnerability, suggesting that quality care may be effective in addressing the kindergarten readiness gap associated with neighborhood disadvantage.

For WSIPP’s next report in the Early Achievers evaluation series, due in December 2022, we will conduct a benefit-cost analysis of Early Achievers. Additionally, we will examine the geographic availability of early childhood education and child care at sites rated “at quality” and “above quality.”

Evaluation of the Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program: Kindergarten Readiness for School-and Part-Day Enrollees

The Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program (ECEAP) was created in 1985 and is a statewide program that provides preschool education and wraparound services to low-income children and their families. Most children are eligible for ECEAP services if they are three or four years old and live in households with income less than or equal to 110% of the federal poverty level. Eligible children can enroll in ECEAP for Part-Day classes, or for longer periods of time in School Day or Working Day classes.

In 2019, the Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to examine ECEAP’s dosage models. We operationalized this legislative directive by comparing outcomes between children enrolled in School Day and Part Day classes. In our sample, we include children who enrolled in ECEAP (when they were four years old) between academic years 2015-2019 and subsequently enrolled in kindergarten the following year.

Overall, we found a positive relationship between School-Day enrollment and children’s kindergarten readiness, as measured by the Washington Kindergarten Inventory of Developing Skills (WaKIDS) assessment. Upon further analysis, we found that children in School Day classes were more likely to meet expectations in physical, cognitive, literacy, and mathematics domains on the WaKIDS assessment. Findings from subgroup analyses suggest that holding all other factors constant, the estimated size of the relationship between School-Day enrollment and kindergarten readiness is largest among non-Hispanic BIPOC and White children. We did not observe a relationship between School-Day enrollment and kindergarten readiness among Hispanic children. This report describes our legislative assignment, research questions, the methodological approach we used, main findings, and limitations in more detail.

In addition to examining ECEAP’s dosage models, the 2019 legislation also directed WSIPP to evaluate the long-and short-term effects of ECEAP. Ultimately, results from these two reports suggest that children who enroll in ECEAP are more likely to be kindergarten ready (than similar non-participants) and among ECEAP enrollees, those in longer class periods (School Day) are more likely to be kindergarten-ready than peers in Part Day.

Evaluation of the Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program: Short- and Long-Term Outcomes for Children

The 2019 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to evaluate the short and long-term effects of ECEAP. This follow-up includes long-term outcome results for the previously studied historical cohort group (children born between 1996-2004), as well as more short-term outcomes for the historical cohort and a more recent cohort group (children born between 2004-2014). The 2019 legislation also directed WSIPP to examine ECEAP’s dosage models.

We found that the relationship between ECEAP participation and outcomes is strongest immediately after ECEAP participation and (generally) fades over time. In particular, we find that ECEAP participants are more likely to be kindergarten-ready and less likely to participate in special education in early school years. We find no clear evidence that ECEAP participants had better outcomes than non-participants on later outcomes, including high school graduation.

WSIPP's LAP Inventory: A Brief History and Potential Changes for the Future

The Learning Assistance Program (LAP) provides supplemental services to K–12 students who are not meeting standards in reading, writing, mathematics, or readiness in these areas. In 2014, the Washington Legislature directed WSIPP to develop an inventory of programs that could be used in LAP, classify programs as evidence-based, research-based, or promising, and update this inventory every two years. WSIPP’s current LAP inventory includes 58 programs related to topics like tutoring, educator professional development, family engagement, community-based partnerships, and behavioral supports.

WSIPP was scheduled to update the inventory in 2022 but has put a hold on this work while it assesses the use of the inventory. In the absence of our regular update, this brief provides a historical review of the LAP inventory, describes potential changes resulting from 2021 legislation, and offers a discussion of options regarding the future of the inventory.

Mandatory Arrest for Domestic Violence: A Systematic Review

Washington State law requires that, given probable cause, police must make an arrest when called to a domestic violence (DV) incident. The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a systematic review of the research on mandatory arrest in DV cases. We found no evidence that mandatory arrest is more effective than discretionary arrest at reducing future DV offenses. Specifically, we found six rigorous studies of the effect of mandatory arrest on DV recidivism. On average, across the studies, mandatory arrest had no effect on whether an individual committed a subsequent DV offense. Further, another study found that mandatory arrest laws did not affect a state’s prevalence of DV. A separate study found that mandatory arrest laws had no effect on DV homicide.

Wilderness Therapy Programs: A Systematic Review of Research

Wilderness therapy programs are set in natural or remote settings and embed therapeutic elements into daily outdoor activities like camping and backpacking in order to build program participants’ personal and interpersonal skills. Some programs serve individuals with behavioral, mental health, and substance use disorders.

In 2021, the Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a research review of wilderness therapy programs and assess stakeholder interest in Washington. We identified 88 studies evaluating programs serving youth and adult populations in need of behavioral, mental health, and substance use support. Due to limitations in the literature, we could not estimate whether or not wilderness therapy programs are effective or determine if the approach is cost beneficial. In this report, we describe our systematic literature review and summarize the main themes from the literature including program models, populations served, and general findings.

A second report, due December 2022, builds on this report and will focus on the interest of stakeholders who currently participate in wilderness therapy programs in Washington or want to in the future.

What Works for Whom? Juvenile Court Assessment Tool and Program Eligibility

In 2022, Washington State Juvenile Courts will transition to a new risk-needs-responsivity assessment, the Juvenile Court Assessment Tool (JCAT). Replacing the former PACT assessment, the JCAT will be used to facilitate case management for court-involved youth, including referrals to state-funded evidence-based programs (EBPs). Following completion of the JCAT in 2020, the 2021 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to review the JCAT to assess potential eligibility under the JCAT that would appropriately assign youth to programs that meet their needs.

This study uses administrative data from the juvenile courts to examine what characteristics of youth are associated with significant reductions in recidivism following referral to and participation in state-funded EBPs. We examine recidivism outcomes for male and female youth who previously were eligible for and participated in the six state-funded EBPs to assess what risk scores, needs scores, and specific youth characteristics correlated with reductions in recidivism following participation in an EBP intervention.

The findings indicate that some youth characteristics identified on the JCAT are associated with significant reductions in recidivism following EBP participation, but these factors vary across sex and type of EBP. While not prescribing new eligibility criteria, the findings will assist the juvenile courts as they develop and refine eligibility for state-funded EBPs under the JCAT.

Findings From the 2021 Survey of Health and Recreation in Washington State: Gambling Behaviors and Prevalence

In 2021, the Washington State Health Care Authority (HCA) conducted a survey of adults in Washington to better understand the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling. HCA contracted with WSIPP to conduct additional analyses.

WSIPP’s analysis found that fewer than half of respondents reported they had gambled in the past 12 months. Of those who had gambled, 3.5% were classified as problem gamblers. Statistically significant differences were detected in the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling among some different demographic populations (demographics collected include gender, marital status, ethnicity, age, education, military service, employment, type of insurance, and geographic region). Compared to those who gambled only in brick-and-mortar establishments, online gamblers were significantly more likely to be problem gamblers. Gamblers who self-identified as having problems with substance use, mental health, or other behaviors, were more likely to be problem gamblers than others not reporting these problems. Most of the population said they thought the harms of gambling outweighed the benefits. A similar proportion said the availability in Washington was fine—neither too available nor not available enough.

Technical Review of the Washington State Environmental Health Disparities Map

The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a technical review of the measures and methods used in the Washington State Department of Health’s Environmental Health Disparities (EHD) Map.

We found that Washington’s EHD Map is one of many in the United States. It uses a similar range of indicators, methodology, and source data compared with the most sophisticated environmental justice (EJ) mapping tools. These EJ tools use some of the best data available at small geographical levels to measure environmental exposures and health disparities. They provide insight into a variety of the environmental harms present in communities and how well-equipped these communities are to overcome those challenges.

Over time, developers will need to regularly review their EJ map tools. The HEAL Act requires the Washington EHD Map to be regularly revised and updated, with comprehensive evaluations occurring every three years. Currently, Washington's tool is comparable in sophistication and detail to other existing tools. However, there are a few additional or enhanced features found in other state tools that Washington does not have, including the following:

Additional indicators reflecting sensitive populations;
Additional water quality measures;
Specific statistical adjustments for missing data; and
Easily accessible user guides and how-to videos on the hosting website.

Washington State's Reentry Community Services Program: Background and Study Outline

For the last 20 years, Washington State has provided unique reentry services for individuals who are at high-risk for recidivism and who have a mental illness. The Reentry Community Services Program (RCSP) provides eligible individuals with coordinated pre- and post-release services to assist with reentry. Individuals are eligible to receive 60 months of mental health services and housing assistance. Additional services are provided on an individual basis depending on need and the availability of resources.

Prior research shows that compared to similar individuals who do not receive these services, RCSP participants are more likely to access mental health services in the community, more likely to access social welfare services during reentry, less likely to require inpatient hospitalization after release, and less likely to recidivate. In addition, research finds that the program achieves these outcomes in a cost-beneficial way.

In 2021, the Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to update its evaluation of the RCSP, examine the potential expansion of the program, and investigate additional therapeutic components to further support individuals’ reentry to the community.

This preliminary report reviews prior research on the RCSP and provides an outline of the approach WSIPP intends to take for its final report to be published in November 2023.

Washington State’s Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative: Introduction to the Series

In Washington State, individuals convicted of certain offenses may be eligible to receive a sentencing alternative called the Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative (DOSA). Established in 1995 and modified several times over the last 25 years, DOSA allows individuals to serve some or all of their standard prison sentence under community supervision instead of spending the entire sentence incarcerated. This sentencing alternative requires that individuals participate in substance use treatment programs based on their assessed needs and comply with behavioral requirements while incarcerated and/or during community supervision.

In 2020, the Washington State Legislature further expanded DOSA and directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to analyze its effectiveness in reducing recidivism compared to standard sentencing. The directive requires WSIPP to update its evaluation in 2028 and every five years thereafter. This report introduces the forthcoming report series by describing the development of DOSA over time and reviewing prior evaluations of DOSA’s effectiveness.

Washington State’s Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative: 2022 Outcome Evaluation

In Washington State, some individuals convicted of a criminal offense may be eligible to receive a Drug Offender Sentencing Alternative (DOSA) in lieu of the standard incarceration sentence.

Using administrative data from the Department of Corrections and WSIPP’s Criminal History Database, this study examined whether individuals participating in prison or residential DOSA were less likely to recidivate compared to similar individuals who received a non-DOSA sentence.

Our findings indicate the prison DOSA reduces the likelihood of recidivism by 6.9 percentage points. These reductions in recidivism were consistent across subgroups by sex, race, and ethnicity.

Our findings for residential DOSA were less conclusive. In general, residential DOSA had no effect on the likelihood of recidivism compared to a standard sentence. While we provide several potential explanations for the differences in the effectiveness of prison and residential DOSA, future research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms by which the two DOSA programs impact individuals’ outcomes, including recidivism.

Wilderness Therapy Programs: Stakeholder Perspectives in Washington

This is the second report in a two-part series focused on wilderness therapy programs. Wilderness therapy combines therapeutic elements with outdoor activities in a natural setting to help support individuals with a range of behavioral, emotional, and substance use issues.

In 2021, the Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to research wilderness therapy programs in the context of behavioral health treatment and prevention. As part of this assignment, we were asked to assess the “interest and likelihood of support” for wilderness therapy programs among interest groups like “state prevention coalitions and tribes.” We interviewed ten individuals representing a variety of stakeholder perspectives in Washington.

Generally, we found that interview respondents view wilderness therapy as potentially beneficial for the individuals they serve or those who live in their communities. However, we found that most respondents had concerns about cost, safety, access, and the lack of information about programs. Respondents also expressed wanting legislators to be aware of issues related to program flexibility, equitable access, and ongoing outreach if they consider policy decisions related to wilderness therapy in the future.

The first report on this topic was published in June 2022 and can be found here.

The Impacts of a Buy American Steel Policy in Washington State

The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to study the economic and environmental impacts of a Buy American Steel policy in the state. Such a policy would require that steel used in the fulfillment of Washington State government contracts be partially or exclusively sourced from within the US. This report describes the findings from two economic analyses: a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and an economic impacts analysis (EIA).

The BCA finds that the increase in cost to taxpayers to carry out projects under a domestic steel requirement would likely exceed new income to workers in the Washington steel industry, but net changes to the state economy would be small. The EIA finds that the requirement would support jobs in the steel industry, but the increased cost to taxpayers would lead to job losses in other sectors. Like the BCA, the net changes predicted by the EIA are small, ranging from a loss of 12 to a gain of 13 jobs per year statewide under a domestic steel requirement.

We also conduct an analysis of how the policy would impact global emissions of greenhouse gases. While the net change in emissions is ambiguous, this analysis suggests that the change in emissions could only range from a decrease of 1.2% to an increase of 1.6% of steel production-generated emissions in Washington.

Does Substance Use or Nutrition in Adolescence Predict Mental Health in Young Adulthood? A Systematic Review

The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to review the research for any relationships between adolescent substance use and adolescent nutrition on subsequent mental illness in early adulthood.

For substance use, we found that adolescent alcohol use was associated with an increased risk of later depression. Adolescent cannabis use was associated with an increased risk for depression and psychosis, but we found no evidence that adolescent misuse of opioids or cocaine is associated with mental illness in young adults.

For nutrition, we found that higher quality diet in adolescence was associated with a lower risk for later depression. Obesity during adolescence was associated with an increased risk for depression in young adults, especially in females. Finally, we found no evidence of a link between adolescent intake of omega-3 fatty acids and any mental illness in young adulthood.

Legal Financial Obligations in Washington State: Final Report

The 2021 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to study legal financial obligations (LFOs). This is the second report in a two-part series.

For the final report, WSIPP used administrative data from multiple Washington State sources to describe the level of criminal LFO impositions, adjustments, and payments made annually at all court levels.

Additionally, WSIPP completed the following:

Reviewed Washington State policies implemented since December 2021;
Discussed court budgets and the flow of LFO dollars through the criminal justice system;
Described the level of funding attributed to LFO accounts and earmarked for use in programming; and
Described legislation and policy changes completed by other states that aim to delink court funding from the collection of LFOs.

We found that available LFO data are limited. As a result, patterns in the data over time cannot be identified. Further, the data do not allow us to trace dollars from the collection to expenditure. More consistent data collection and reporting across courts may assist efforts to identify patterns over time in the future. A preliminary report covering LFO background, state statutes that impose LFOs, and a 50-state review of court funding and LFOs was released in December 2021 and can be found here.

Early Achievers Evaluation: Access to Providers Meeting Early Achievers Quality Standards

In this report, we examine low-income family access to subsidized child care, Early Childhood Education and Assistance Programming (ECEAP), or Head Start programming that has met Early Achiever’s quality standards as of 2019, at the end of the initial Early Achievers roll out. Our estimates indicate that, on average in Washington in 2019, there are roughly three low-income children nearby for each high-quality publicly supported child care/early learning “slot.” Across the state, we find considerable variation in local access to child care that has met EA quality standards. However, we do not find large differences in average access across the following neighborhood comparisons: urban/rural regionality, majority/minority BIPOC population makeup, or higher/lower vulnerability designation.

This report—along with a concurrent analysis of benefits and costs of EA—concludes WSIPP’s Early Achievers evaluation series.

Early Achievers Evaluation Report Four: Analysis of Benefits and Costs

In the Early Start Act of 2015, the Washington State Legislature required child care and early learning providers who serve non-school-aged children and receive state subsidies to participate in Early Achievers (EA), the state’s quality rating and improvement system (QRIS). This legislation also directed WSIPP to examine the relationship between EA quality ratings and long-term outcomes for children who participate in state-subsidized child care and early learning programs. WSIPP was required to produce annual reports to the legislature from December 2019 through December 2022; the final report must include a benefit-cost analysis of EA.

We previously found that attending a site meeting EA quality standards in the pre-kindergarten year was associated with better outcomes in kindergarten, compared with attending a rated site that did not yet meet standards. In this fourth report, we focus on projected monetary benefits tied to those outcomes. On average, attending an EA quality Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program (ECEAP) or child care center may return benefits of approximately $4,300 to $7,000 per child over the course of the lifespan. Analysis of aligned program costs was limited by data availability.

This report—along with a concurrent report examining low-income families’ access to publicly funded EA quality child care and early learning—concludes WSIPP’s Early Achievers evaluation series.

A 10-Year Review of Non-Medical Cannabis Policy, Revenues, and Expenditures

We first describe the implementation of I-502 and summarize major cannabis-related policy milestones through the fiscal year 2022. In addition, we detail aspects of the Washington cannabis market structure and regulatory rules and compare components of non-medical cannabis (NMC) legalization nationwide. Second, we describe cannabis-related sales, excise tax revenues, and spending of those revenues over the last decade. In fiscal year 2022, cannabis retailers sold nearly $1.4 billion in cannabis products, and just over half a billion dollars were generated in excise tax revenues. Most of these revenues are transferred to the general fund and state basic health plan trust, and less than 20% goes to state agencies for prevention, healthcare, research, and cannabis industry oversight. Since fiscal year 2016, this distribution of expenditures has not significantly changed, although the total dollar amount of cannabis-related revenue and expenditure has nearly tripled.

Washington State's Functional Family Therapy Program: Outcome Evaluation

In Washington State, Functional Family Therapy (FFT) is one of the many evidence-based programs made available to court-involved youth on probation. In 2022, WSIPP was contracted to evaluate the effect of the program on recidivism.

Using administrative data, this study examined the likelihood of recidivism for youth participating in FFT relative to eligible youth who did not participate in FFT. In addition, we evaluated for whom, and under what conditions, the program was most effective.

Our findings indicate that participation in FFT is associated with an increased likelihood of recidivism, when compared to the average “treatment-as-usual” that youth in the juvenile courts typically receive. On average, youth who started FFT were 10.1 percentage points more likely to recidivate than youth in the comparison group. Of those who recidivated, there were no significant differences found in the rates of felony or violent felony recidivism. The association between participation in FFT and recidivism did not vary based on youth characteristics, geography, living situation, or competency of therapist.

Involuntary Treatment for Substance Abuse: Client Outcomes

In 2016, HB 1713 (Ricky’s Law) modified the Involuntary Treatment Act. The Act integrated crisis response for mental health and substance abuse (SUD), created a new classification of mental health professionals, and mandated the creation of Secure Withdrawal and Management and Stabilization facilities (SWMS) to serve those detained for SUD.

The law also directed WSIPP to evaluate the effects of the law. We evaluated the outcomes for those detained to SWMS, comparing them to people never detained but who had received voluntary detoxification treatment in the same period.

In the six months following treatment, SWMS clients were less likely to:

Receive SUD treatment;
Experience homelessness;
Be treated in the emergency department or be hospitalized;
Receive any state financial supports.

We found no significant difference in rates of mental health treatment, arrest, or employment.

Our benefit-cost analysis found that, compared to the detox group, SWMS returns $0.19 per dollar spent. We estimate that benefits will exceed costs 6% of the time. That is, compared to the detox-only group, the cost of the program exceeds the benefits we are able to estimate.

Internet Stings and Operation Net Nanny

In May 2021, the Washington Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of Washington State Patrol’s (WSP) Operation Net Nanny (“Net Nanny”). Net Nanny is a type of undercover law enforcement activity known as an “internet sting operation.” WSP detectives designed Net Nanny to arrest adults who use the internet to solicit sexual activity with minors.

The legislative assignment outlined two objectives for WSIPP’s study. First, the study must describe the current research on internet sting operations. Second, the study must include an analysis that compares the characteristics of individuals convicted through Net Nanny with individuals convicted of child sex offenses through other avenues.

To address the first objective, we reviewed the academic literature on internet sting operations. However, we found limited research on this topic. It is unclear whether these operations are effective at deterring or reducing crime.

To address the second objective, we compiled administrative data on all adults in Washington State who were convicted of child sex crimes since Net Nanny has been active. We used this data to compare two groups: (1) individuals arrested via Net Nanny; and (2) individuals who were arrested through traditional police tactics. We found that individuals in both groups exhibit similar demographic characteristics and criminal history. On average, across these specific measures, individuals convicted through Net Nanny resemble people convicted of completed sexual crimes against minors.

Initiative 502 and Cannabis-Related Public Health and Safety Outcomes: Third Required Report

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. The law also directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to evaluate various public health, public safety, and economic impacts of the implementation of I-502 in a series of reports.

In this third required report, we describe findings from analyses of the relationship between non-medical cannabis legalization or licensed retail operations and various outcomes. First, we examined how cannabis possession misdemeanor conviction rates changed in Washington after the passage of I-502. Second, we examined how reported cannabis use has changed in Washington after the passage of I-502 compared to non-legalizing states. Last, we specifically focused on the impact of local access to licensed non-medical retailers. For these analyses, we examined how retail access relates to substance abuse and traffic safety outcomes within the state over time.

These analyses represent an intermediate step towards the ultimate legislatively mandated benefit-cost evaluation of I-502.

Technical Report—Licensed Cannabis Retail Access and Substance Use Disorder Diagnoses

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. In this report, we examined if greater access to licensed non-medical cannabis (NMC) retailers relates to disordered substance use diagnoses among Medicaid beneficiaries in Washington State. We found that a lower average travel time to an NMC retailer predicts a small increase in the probability that a claim includes a diagnosis of cannabis use disorder (CUD), alcohol use disorder (AUD), or opioid use disorder (OUD) among Medicaid beneficiaries ages 21 and older and beneficiaries ages 12-17. We also found that in neighborhoods with multiple retailers located in proximity (within 5 or 10 minutes), an increase in the number of retailers predicts a higher likelihood of CUD.

Technical Report—Initiative 502 and Cannabis-Related Convictions

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. Specifically, I-502 legalized the possession of up to one ounce of cannabis (about 28 grams) for personal use for individuals ages 21 and older.

In this report, we examined how rates of cannabis possession misdemeanor convictions have changed since the enactment of I-502. We found that cannabis possession conviction rates dropped to almost zero among adults of legal age immediately after I-502 went into effect. Rates also substantively dropped for underaged individuals after NMC legalization, but not as dramatically as for adults ages 21 and over. Across all age groups, we find no significant changes in conviction rates after the advent of NMC retail operations.

Technical Report—Licensed Cannabis Retail Access and Traffic Fatalities

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. In this report, we examined the relationship between greater access to licensed non-medical cannabis (NMC) retailers and the prevalence of fatal traffic collisions. We found that a lower average travel time to an NMC retailer is related to both a modest increase in the prevalence of total drivers involved in a fatal traffic collision and drivers who test positive for THC. These findings suggest that in areas with more cannabis use (as measured by easier access to legal cannabis retail), there are more drivers involved in fatal traffic collisions. We found no evidence that retail access relates to the prevalence of drivers who test positive for alcohol alone (BAC at least 0.08), or any amount of alcohol in combination with THC.

Technical Report—The Relationship Between Initiative 502 and Reported Substance Use

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. In this report, using national survey data between 2004 to 2019, we compared changes in the rates of reported cannabis, alcohol, and other substance use in Washington relative to comparable states after the enactment of I-502 and the advent of a licensed retail market. We do not find evidence that the enactment of I-502 or the advent of cannabis retail sales in Washington significantly changed reported adult or youth cannabis use, alcohol use, or other substance use compared to non-legalizing states.

Student Achievement and the Pandemic: Analysis of Test Scores, Earnings, and Recovery Interventions

WSIPP receives funding from the legislature to conduct research on K-12 education topics that are relevant in Washington. In this report, we examine academic achievement among public school students in Washington during the COVID-19 pandemic. First, we estimate how student math and English Language Arts (ELA) achievement changed during the pandemic. Next, we predict long-term effects on future earnings, and finally, we discuss several interventions that may help students recover academically.

Overall, we found that average test scores in the 2022 school year were 0.20 standard deviations (SD) lower than average test scores before the pandemic. We observed larger declines in math test scores than ELA scores, and we estimated the largest effect in middle school grades, though effects in elementary and high school grades are also notable. Further, we found larger test score declines among female students, students of color, and low-income students compared to their male, White, Asian, and economically advantaged peers.

We estimate that a 0.20 SD decline in test scores is associated with an average $32,000 decrease in future earnings per student compared to students before the pandemic. Finally, we reviewed the impact of interventions like tutoring, academically-focused summer school programs, and double-dose classes on student achievement. We estimate that on average, these programs increase test scores between 0.03 and 0.39 SD. These interventions may help offset the decline in scores we observe and help students recover academically in the post-pandemic period.

The Underground Construction Economy of Washington State: Size, Cost, and Government Enforcement Efforts

The underground construction economy (UCE) consists of all economic activities in construction that would be legal if fully reported to authorities as required. It includes employees misclassified as independent contractors or being paid under the table and independent contractors and businesses unregistered or underreporting their activity. Each type of UCE activity produces losses to workers, consumers, businesses, and state and federal government programs. Past research has found that underground activity is common in the construction industry.

We estimate the size and cost to workers, Washington state, and the federal government of Washington’s underground construction economy by year from 2011-2021. We find that an average of 14.2% of construction workers in the state are part of the UCE each year. We estimate average annual total costs to be $142.6 million to Washington construction workers, $59.8 million to the state, and $315.4 million to the federal government.

We provide an overview of the many actions taken by Washington state agencies to detect and enforce UCE activity and comment on barriers to collaboration between them. Finally, we survey common underground economy-related programs and policies in other jurisdictions that may improve the detection and enforcement of UCE activity.

The Needs of Farmworkers in Washington State: Preliminary Report

This report addresses a 2022 legislative assignment, the first in a two-part series on the needs of farmworkers in Washington State and the role of state and federal agencies in addressing those needs. WSIPP will carry out a survey of Washington farmworkers during the 2024 growing and harvesting seasons to better understand their needs. As specified in the legislative assignment, questions will focus on workplace health and safety, the payment of wages, the use of government services, harassment and retaliation for asserting their rights, and other socioeconomic challenges.

This preliminary report provides a brief overview of US farmworkers and agriculture in Washington. We summarize the existing literature on challenges faced by farmworkers in the US related to workplace health and safety, labor and pay, immigration, and socioeconomics. Finally, we outline our plan to conduct the 2024 survey and detail work already completed in the survey effort.

A final report on the survey results, state agency coordination, and potential policies to address coordination will be published on June 30, 2025.

The legislature specifically directed WSIPP to study the needs of farmworkers and relevant policies and state agency programs. WSIPP was not asked to examine the perspective of farm owners or employers. This limitation will be discussed in the final report.

Transitional Kindergarten Programs in Washington State: Describing 2022-23 Programs, Educators, and Students

The 2022 Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of Transitional Kindergarten (TK), a publicly funded school-based educational experience for students in the year before kindergarten. Transitional Kindergarten in Washington is district-initiated, and districts and schools make implementation decisions. The assignment required WSIPP to report on TK programs offered by school districts, including a description of TK students, to compare teachers and classroom instruction in TK with the state’s income-targeted public early learning program (the Early Childhood Education and Assistance Program, or ECEAP), to describe district rationale and funding for early learning programs, and to review TK programs and evaluation research in other states. We used a combination of administrative data and survey data from district leaders, TK teachers, and ECEAP teachers to address all study elements.

In the 2022-23 school year, we observed 4,700 students enrolled in TK, with enrollments reported by 44% of Washington school districts. Most districts offered TK in only one school districtwide; 73% of TK classrooms were standalone programs serving only TK students.

Licensed Non-Medical Cannabis Retail Access and High School Outcomes in Washington State

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. In this report, we examined the relationship between school proximity to an operational non-medical cannabis (NMC) retailer and high school outcomes. Our findings suggest a modest adverse relationship between proximity to a retailer and outcomes. Specifically, on average, high school students who attend a school located within a five-minute drive time to an operational retailer experience more unexcused absences and a lower likelihood of 4-year high school graduation relative to students who attend a school that does not have a nearby NMC retailer. A higher number of nearby retailers to school further relates to a higher rate of unexcused absences.

Guided Pathways: Preliminary Report on Implementation and Student Outcomes

Guided Pathways is a whole-college reform framework designed to help students in community and technical colleges choose academic paths and earn credentials or transfer on time. The 2021 Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct an evaluation of the implementation of Guided Pathways in Washington, identify evidence of its effectiveness, and examine student outcomes.

For this preliminary report, we surveyed community and technical colleges in Washington to understand early implementation of Guided Pathways. Thirty-three out of 34 colleges responded to our survey and reported implementing Guided Pathways to some extent.

We observed similarities in implementation across colleges, but overall, Guided Pathways varies from college to college. Many colleges started with mapping initiatives and added advising reforms. It was common for colleges to implement multiple initiatives together, particularly mapping, advising, and student support activities. Colleges reported increased collaboration after beginning Guided Pathways but noted that the COVID-19 pandemic, staff capacity, and data system changes all presented challenges to implementing reforms. Colleges also reported needing ongoing funding to support future Guided Pathways work.

We also received data from the Washington State Board for Community and Technical Colleges to examine student outcomes. We observed trends in retention, course completion, credit accumulation, and GPA outcomes for students in Guided Pathways (GP) and non-GP colleges (non-GP) between 2015 and 2019. These outcomes increased for students in both GP and non-GP colleges over time, and any differences between college groups were small. We cannot say if differences are due to Guided Pathways, other programs, college factors, or student populations. To date, there are no evaluations that demonstrate Guided Pathways’ causal impact on student outcomes.

WSIPP will publish a final report focusing on long-term student outcomes like degree completion, four-year institution transfer rates, employment, and earnings in December 2029.

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Programs for Adult Corrections: Preliminary Report

The 2013 Washington State Legislature passed a bill to facilitate the use of evidence-based programs in adult corrections. It also assigned WSIPP to create an inventory of evidence-based and research-based adult corrections programs.

The 2023 Legislature directed WSIPP to update the Adult Corrections Inventory, focusing on programs for incarcerated individuals in prison facilities. This update prioritizes adding programs offered by Washington’s Department of Corrections (DOC).

In this preliminary report, we identify programs currently offered in DOC prison facilities and indicate whether these programs have been evaluated in relation to recidivism. We identified 30 programs offered in one or more DOC facilities between 2014 and 2023 that have been evaluated but have not yet been classified on the Adult Corrections Inventory. We will review these programs for possible inclusion in the updated Inventory to be published in December 2024.

An Assessment of Washington State’s Reentry Community Services Program: Outcome Evaluation, Potential for Expansion, and Effective Components

The Reentry Community Services Program (RCSP) provides support services for adults leaving prison who have complex mental illness and who pose a danger to themselves or others. Individuals are eligible to receive up to 60 months of mental health services and housing assistance.

In this second and final report, we describe our findings that RCSP is associated with positive outcomes for participants, as well as positive monetary benefits for participants and others in society. We also find that the monetary costs of RCSP are higher than the expected long-term benefits. We found no evidence for promising features to add to the program that might increase its effectiveness.

We evaluated the RCSP by examining differences in reentry outcomes for a group of program participants and a comparison group of similar non-participants. We found that program participation is associated with improved outcomes, primarily during the first 6-12 months after prison release. During this period, RCSP participants were more likely to experience positive outcomes (e.g., mental health treatment and receipt of financial assistance) and less likely to experience negative outcomes (e.g., recidivism and homelessness).

We conducted a benefit-cost analysis and found that relative to the comparison group, the RCSP returns $0.57 per dollar spent. In other words, the cost of the RCSP exceeds the benefits we can estimate, in part because program success leads to increased state expenditures. We were unable to monetize a reduction in the risk of experiencing homelessness. We found limited evidence that extension of the RCSP to other populations would result in net monetary benefits to society.

Finally, we explored which components of reentry programs in the research literature are linked to reduced recidivism and could be modified in the current RCSP. Among the analyzed components, only medication assistance, already available in the RCSP, was associated with reductions in recidivism.

Hospital Staffing Plans in Washington State

The 2023 Washington State Legislature tasked WSIPP with analyzing hospital staffing plans submitted to the Department of Health as required by RCW 70.41.420. Specifically, WSIPP was asked to evaluate the plans in terms of timeliness, completeness, format, and the maximum number of patients assigned to nursing staff, along with trends over time. WSIPP was also directed to review professional guidance on hospital staffing and to summarize hospital staffing policies in other jurisdictions.

We find that 75% of staffing plans are submitted on time to the Department of Health annually. Only around 26% of hospitals report the same units each year, but we are not able to determine whether plans are complete due to a lack of information on hospital department mergers, openings, and closures over time. The format in which staffing information is reported is largely determined by the type of hospital unit. We find that patient-to-registered nurse (RN) ratios are lowest in critical care, post-anesthesia care, and during labor and birth, where the most involved or life-saving care is administered. Patient-to-certified nursing assistant (CNA) ratios are much higher than for RNs. Rural areas tend to have lower patient-to-CNA ratios than urban areas, suggesting that rural hospitals are more dependent on CNAs to administer care to patients. Some types of units have fairly consistent RN and CNA staffing ratios throughout the state, whereas others are more diverse.

Professional nursing and hospital associations offer similar recommendations regarding long-term guidance to solve the national nurse shortage in the US. In terms of short-term guidance, nursing organizations generally favor fixed patient-to-nurse ratios, whereas hospitals emphasize the importance of flexible staffing at the hospital level.

Washington is one of 15 states that require hospitals to produce staffing plans. Ten states also require staffing committees composed of at least 50% direct care staff, similar to Washington. Seven states have maximum patient-to-RN ratios in at least some hospital unit types.

Changes to Washington State's Juvenile Court and Juvenile Rehabilitation Jurisdiction: A Preliminary Analysis of "JR to 25"

Starting in 2018, the Washington State Legislature made reforms colloquially referred to as “JR to 25.” This legislation, in part, modified the jurisdiction of courts and correctional facilities for juveniles who commit serious violent offenses in Washington State. The JR to 25 bills also directed WSIPP to examine the impacts of the legislative changes. This study serves as a preliminary report.

In this report, we summarize the policy changes resulting from JR to 25; describe changes in the population housed in juvenile facilities before and after the legislation took effect; provide a preliminary descriptive analysis of individuals’ participation in programming and behavior while in confinement; and estimate the fiscal impacts of the legislation.

First, we see slight changes in the demographic makeup of JR facilities following the legislative changes, with the population skewing slightly older and being more likely to come in based on a felony, person-based offense. We find that individuals are engaged in more rehabilitative programming after the JR to 25 policy changes took effect. We also find an increase in reports signaling misbehavior, the issuing of incident reports and associated room confinement or isolation events after the policy changes. Across all our findings in this preliminary report, we cannot say whether observed differences before and after the legislative changes are due to JR to 25 or other factors.

A final evaluation is due to the legislature in December 2031.

Evaluating DOC’s Validated Treatment Provider List for Reentry Navigators: Preliminary Report

In Washington, reentry navigators work with individuals after they leave prison and enter a period of community custody. These navigators refer individuals to supportive services, rehabilitation programs, and potential employers. With funding from the Department of Justice, the Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC) is exploring the impact of equipping community reentry navigators with lists of verified service providers. The intent of the verified provider list (VPL) is to improve upon historical practices by creating a provider directory that is more comprehensive, accurate, and up to date. The VPL was implemented in four reentry centers in two counties; three reentry centers serving three additional counties serve as comparison locations. With approval from WSIPP’s Board of Directors, the DOC contracted with WSIPP to conduct an evaluation of the VPL.

In this preliminary report, we describe the providers that are included on the VPL; describe characteristics of people that are assigned to treatment and comparison reentry facility; and explore how the VPL changes engagement with service providers measured through the number of referrals, the length of time until first referral, and the length of time until first engagement.

There was evidence that the VPL was working as intended. Reentry navigators in areas with access to the VPL provided more referrals and provided those referrals more quickly. On average, the first referral was 30 days faster in treatment reentry centers (20 days) versus comparison reentry centers (51 days).

A final evaluation, including exploring program impacts on recidivism, was originally planned to be published in December 2025. This contract was extended, and a final report will be published by June 30, 2026.

Postsecondary Education Programs in Washington Prisons: An Analysis of Post-Release Education Outcomes

In 2021, the Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to produce a series of reports to “understand whether participation in postsecondary education (PSE) while incarcerated contributes to greater enrollment and completion of postsecondary education and reduced recidivism post release.” This first report examines the association between participation in PSE programs in adult prisons and enrollment and completion in community and technical colleges (CTC) in Washington after release.

The Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC) and the Washington State Board for Community and Technical Colleges (SBCTC) have long collaborated to provide most of the education programming in prisons. In this report, we focus on DOC-SBCTC contracted PSE programs, which include workforce training or academic programs that lead to a vocational certificate, workforce associate degree, direct transfer associate degree, or bachelor's degree.

We find that participation in PSE in prison is associated with a higher likelihood of enrolling in a CTC after release. However, among PSE participants and non-participants who went on to enroll in a CTC after release from prison, there were no differences between their retention rates, GPAs, accumulated credits, or probability of credential receipt. When considering overall credential receipt during and after incarceration, though, PSE participants were more likely to hold a credential than non-participants.

A final report in October 2027 will expand upon this report, examining how recent changes to postsecondary correctional education in prisons have influenced post-release education outcomes and recidivism.

Conservation District Elections in Washington State: Preliminary Report

The 2023 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to study the costs of conservation district (district) supervisor elections under current law and several alternative policies that would move elections to be held under the statute for general elections and other special purpose districts. WSIPP was also tasked with investigating potential non-monetary costs and benefits of these alternative policies.

This preliminary report provides a background on districts in Washington and an overview of their current election processes. We describe our efforts to collect election cost data from all conservation districts in the state. We have also assembled data on historical election turnout from the Washington State Conservation Commission (SCC) and have obtained general election cost data for each county from the Office of the Secretary of State.

The final report, which will be published in June 2025, will include our analysis of the costs of elections in each district and will estimate costs under each alternative policy specified in the study assignment. It will also contain a qualitative analysis of the potential non-monetary costs and benefits of each alternative policy based on feedback from district personnel, SCC, and other stakeholders. This preliminary report describes our plan for those analyses.

Jails and Juvenile Detention Centers in Washington State: Population Trends, Survey of Local Facilities, and Availability of CJTC Courses

The 2023 Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of local jails and juvenile detention centers (JDCs). The study had three objectives: 1) identify changes in population characteristics between 2010 and 2022; 2) learn about staffing shortages, facility conditions, available services, costs, and funding sources through a survey of local facilities; and 3) examine the availability of Criminal Justice Training Commission (CJTC) classes for correctional officers.

The current study has three components. First, we used administrative data from 2010-2022 to examine trends in the characteristics of all individuals who were admitted to jail and JDCs for at least 24 hours. We observed decreases in the number of admissions and the percentage of individuals detained for drug crime, along with increases in the percentage of mental health disorders and individuals detained for violent crime.

Second, we collected and analyzed survey data from 56 institutions (35 jails, 21 JDCs) that operate 64 facilities. To our knowledge, our respondent pool represents all local detention facilities across Washington. Among other findings, most respondents reported that their institution struggles to recruit and retain correction officers, resulting in persistent staffing shortages. In addition, the average facility has been in operation for 35 years. Most respondents indicated their facility needs extensive repair.

Finally, we examined the availability of CJTC courses using administrative records and survey data. Although state law mandates that new recruits complete training within six months of being hired as a correctional officer, evidence suggests that CJTC courses are not offered frequently enough to keep up with demand. As a result, new recruits have been waiting 6-12 months before enrolling. Survey results indicate that most respondents are dissatisfied with the availability of CJTC courses.

Career and Technical Education Skill Centers: Describing Programs, Students, and Student Outcomes

WSIPP receives funding from the legislature to conduct research on K-12 education topics. This report focuses on Career and Technical Education skill centers and their students. Skill centers are regional secondary schools that serve students across multiple school districts and provide programs that are too expensive or specialized for school districts to operate individually.

In this report, we describe skill center programming and explore questions regarding access. We find that approximately 86% of Washington’s students reside in districts with access to a skill center. Students in districts without access are evenly split between rural and urban locales. Only 3% of high school students enrolled in a skill center course in AY 2023, and skill center directors reported that demand exceeds availability for a majority of their programs.

Additionally, we summarize data on skill center students’ graduation rates and their post-secondary and labor market outcomes over a five-year period following high school. Across the 2013 through 2023 graduation cohorts, most skill center students (80%) earned a high school diploma. Less than 40% have earned a post-secondary credential five years after graduation, but nearly 70% are employed over that time frame. Only 10% of skill center students are not in education or employment five years after graduation.

Inventory of Evidence-Based, Research-Based, and Promising Programs for Adult Corrections: Final Report

The 2023 Legislature directed WSIPP to update the Adult Corrections Inventory, focusing on programs for incarcerated individuals in prison facilities. For this inventory, we reviewed and synthesized the research evidence for a variety of programs aimed at reducing recidivism and improving other outcomes for this population. This update prioritizes adding programs offered by Washington’s Department of Corrections (DOC). This is the second update to the Adult Corrections Inventory first published in 2013.

The accompanying report describes our standard process for evaluating and classifying research evidence and the reasons that program classifications may change in the current iteration of the inventory. Programs that are new to the inventory, updated with current evidence, or change classification due to benefit-cost model updates are identified in the report. Additionally, this report summarizes information about likely program effects on recidivism for all DOC facility programs included in the inventory.

Find previous versions of the inventory with the following links: 2013 Inventory; 2018 Inventory.

Contracting and Labor Practices in Washington State's Correctional Industries

Under RCW 72.09.100, the legislature has vested the Department of Corrections (DOC) with the authority to establish a voluntary comprehensive work program. This legislation defines five types of work programs which includes free venture industries (Class I), tax reduction industries (Correctional Industries, Class II), institutional support industries (Class III), and community work industries (Class IV). The most comprehensive and diverse set of work opportunities are operated by Correctional Industries (CI) which offers a variety of goods and services such as institutional food service, furniture manufacturing, and production of textile goods. In addition to work opportunities, CI offers training, certification, and mentorship to people that participate in its programming. In this report, we describe the goods and services produced by CI; the comparability of CI goods relative to items available through traditional vendors; the amount and value of labor provided by people experiencing incarceration; the skill level of assignments available to people that are incarcerated; and the relationship between CI participation and post-incarceration employment.

In FY 2023, CI generated over $100 million in revenue from nearly 3 million labor hours from incarcerated people. The largest purchaser from CI was DOC, predominantly for food and clothing. Items manufactured by CI were generally priced comparably to similar products available through other vendors. The one exception was for prescription eyewear produced by the Optical Division; these were the lowest cost for nearly all items reviewed.

Across all DOC work programs, incarcerated people contributed over 9 million labor hours (equivalent to 4,300 full-time employees) to producing goods and services, maintaining DOC facilities, supporting community projects, and performing forestry fire service. Compensating incarcerated people at minimum wage would increase costs from $9.4 million per year to more than $150 million per year. People that had participated in CI were more likely to find employment after release, find employment sooner, work more hours, and earn more per hour. Due to data limitations, however, these results should be interpreted as descriptive and not causal.

Assessments and Charges in Washington Department of Corrections Facilities: A Review and Analysis

The 2023 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to review all assessments and charges imposed on individuals incarcerated in Department of Corrections (DOC) facilities and their family members and the effect of assessments and charges on the financial status of incarcerated individuals. In this report, we quantified the financial costs of items and services incurred by incarcerated individuals during confinement, assessed their financial status, and explored how DOC collected and used the associated commissions and fees.

First, our review shows that while incarcerated individuals initially received certain items free of charge, they were required to purchase replacements for many of these items thereafter. In FY 2024, individuals spent nearly $37 million on additional items and services, with over 93% of the spending concentrated in five major categories: commissary items, phone calls, electronic media services, and food and personal property packages. Additionally, our price comparison analysis indicates that commissary items were priced relatively low.

Second, our analysis reveals that mandatory deductions amounted to roughly 23% of wages and 32% of funds received during FYs 2022-24. Recent policy changes have increased the number of exemptions to those mandatory deductions. Moreover, our assessment shows that the average individual incurred nearly $2,230 annually on additional items and services. Compensation from correctional work assignments could cover nearly 35% of the spending (on average), with the remainder typically paid by family and/or limited debt.

Lastly, our analysis indicates that DOC charged average gross profit margins ranging from 20% to 40% across these five major categories. Additionally, commissions and fees–primarily from phone calls, media services, and incarceration costs–were relatively small (less than 1%) compared to DOC’s budget and were allocated to improvement activities and CI operational expenses.

Traumatic Brain Injury and Long-Term Services and Supports in Washington State

Long-term support services (LTSS) include a range of resources to help people with chronic conditions maintain their quality of life. These services can be adapted to meet the specific needs of adults who have sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI).

We conducted a review of Medicaid programs states use to provide LTSS. Programs that specifically target adults with brain injury are more likely to offer employment and behavioral support. Facility-based services are commonly provided in group home settings and may specify transitional or lifelong support goals. Many states integrate participant self-direction into community-based TBI services. Several states are carefully integrating adults with complex chronic conditions, such as TBI, into managed LTSS.

We used administrative data to estimate the incidence of TBI in Washington, demographics of adults with TBIs, and healthcare outcomes. Older adults are most vulnerable to TBIs, but younger adults represent a large proportion of total injuries. Medicaid-insured adults are hospitalized for TBI at a higher rate than privately insured adults. Privately insured adults account for a larger proportion of TBIs diagnosed in outpatient settings. Rates vary across counties but are not correlated with rurality at that scale.

Conservation District Elections in Washington State: Final Report

The 2023 Washington State Legislature tasked WSIPP with investigating the cost of conservation district (CD) supervisor elections under current law and two alternative policies that would place these elections on the general ballot. WSIPP was also directed to evaluate the potential non-monetary impacts of these alternative policies. To conduct this study, we collected data from all 45 CDs in Washington to summarize election costs, funding, and turnout under current law. We surveyed CD supervisors and staff about the potential impacts of the alternative policies. This final report covers our analysis of CD supervisor elections under current law and the potential monetary and non-monetary impacts of two alternative policies specified in the legislative assignment.

Under current law, CDs vary widely in the cost of their elections. From 2020–2024, total election costs ranged from a low of $50 to nearly $422,000, with a median of $2,500. CDs fund their elections in a number of ways, including state funding, flat per-parcel fees charged at the county level, or the overhead portion of grants they receive to conduct conservation programming. Turnout in CD elections is very low, with only one CD having more than 1% of its eligible voters cast ballots between 2020 and 2024.

We find that both of the alternative election policies would lead to drastic increases in election costs for most CDs. The first policy, which places CD elections on the general ballot, would have resulted in a median election cost increase of 225% per biennium from 2020–2024. This would increase to a 651% increase if primaries were required. The second policy would additionally change elections such that supervisors run for one of five zones within a CD. This policy would have been less costly but would still have led to a median cost increase of 75% over current law (338% with primaries).

CD supervisors and staff communicated that they expected more non-monetary costs than benefits to result from the alternative policies. Many districts shared that the policies could lead to more turnout in elections and engagement with CDs, but some questioned whether this would lead to increased engagement with CDs. Most districts feared the policies would lead to increased politicization of CDs and fewer resources being devoted to conservation programming.

The Needs of Farmworkers in Washington State: Final Report

The 2022 Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of the needs of farmworkers in Washington state. WSIPP was specifically tasked with interviewing or surveying farmworkers about their experiences in agricultural work in the state, reviewing the research literature on the efficacy of programs and policies to meet farmworker needs, and describing the collaboration between state and federal agencies in delivering services to farmworkers. A preliminary report was published in December of 2023.

This final report presents the results of a survey of 202 farmworkers in the state. Respondents were asked about workplace health and safety, experiences with hours and pay, use of government services, harassment and retaliation, and accessing food, housing, and healthcare. In line with past research at the national level, farmworkers in Washington reported frequently working in heat and smoke and with pesticides. A significant share of respondents also stated challenges with obtain consistent housing and food, and 40% stated that they did not have insurance. Other key takeaways from responses include:

More than half of respondents said employers do not consistently adjust work to excessive heat or smoke.
English speakers were more likely to receive safety-related training and equipment.
Nearly half of farmworkers reported using government services, and 69% of those that did sought help from a community organization or figure.
43% of H-2A workers report struggling to find housing and food “every week” despite being guaranteed both by their visa status.
Having health insurance is associated with greater use of preventative healthcare and less use of emergency services.

State and federal agencies coordinate enforcing policies and delivering programs to farmworkers. Federal agency personnel relayed that Washington is one of the most effective states in providing services and protections to farmworkers. Washington State agency personnel reported good working relationships with staff at other agencies but also communicated that a lack of formal processes for collaboration, such as shared data bases to coordinate responses to complaints and incidents, hampers coordination.

The research literature on policies and programs to help meet farmworker needs emphasizes the importance of state- and community-led initiatives to support the specific regional needs of farmworkers.

Breast Cancer Programs for Native Communities in Washington's Peer States

The 2024 Legislature directed WSIPP to study breast cancer-related programming for American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women in Washington’s peer states. The legislature specified breast cancer prevention and education programs and post-diagnosis resource and support programs led by states, tribes, or collaborations between states and tribes. In addition, the legislature directed WSIPP to review evidence for identified programs.

We conducted outreach to program representatives across nine peer states. Limited access to screening and treatment, as well as mistrust and cultural barriers, may discourage AIAN women from seeking preventive care and follow-up treatment. All states and some tribes or indigenous-led organizations receive federal grants for breast cancer outreach, education, and screening for low-income, uninsured, or underinsured women. State programs vary in how grants are used to reach AIAN communities. We identified few state- or tribal-led organizations with post-diagnosis supports or resources for AIAN women. Some organizations offer treatment navigation, access to traditional native medicine, or programs to honor breast cancer survivors. The evaluation literature largely supports the effectiveness of identified prevention and post-diagnosis activities; however, there is limited population-specific research on the health outcomes of these interventions with AIAN women.

Washington's Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) & Recovery Navigator Program (RNP): Opportunities to Improve Pre-Booking Diversion Fidelity

Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) was originally developed in Seattle to divert people away from the criminal legal system before they were booked into jail. In 2019, state funding was provided to expand LEAD into four pilot communities. In 2021, additional funding was provided through the Recovery Navigator Program (RNP) to expand pre-booking diversion statewide. Both LEAD and RNP seek to connect people with housing and mental and substance use disorder treatment to address underlying issues that drive frequent interactions with law enforcement. This report describes the state of LEAD and RNP implementation, barriers to achieving higher fidelity to core principles of pre-arrest diversion, the use of technical support from the LEAD National Support Bureau (LSB), and a benefit-cost analysis.

To address these topics, we conducted 60 interviews with 91 people involved in the diversion process, reviewed administrative data collected by the LSB, and conducted a systematic literature review, meta-analysis, and benefit-cost analysis. Results suggested that LEAD and RNP programs face considerable challenges in implementing pre-booking diversion. Major barriers include limited buy-in from criminal legal system professionals, insufficient capacity and funding, and lack of necessary resources such as housing and substance use disorder treatment. Clarifying the relationship between LEAD core principles and RNP uniform standards, facilitating technical assistance, and implementing improved data-sharing technologies would help to improve program fidelity and clarify uncertainty among diversion system actors. The benefit-cost analysis suggested that for every $1 invested in these programs, $7.39 in benefits was returned.

Improving Evaluations of Programs Offered by the Department of Corrections (DOC)

Although experimental research is ideal for testing causal relationships between variables, its use in correctional settings is rare for both practical and ethical reasons. This report explores opportunities for improving the quality of WSIPP’s outcome evaluations of prison programs offered by the Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC).

Our analysis finds that six current DOC programs show promise regarding the use of natural experiments to conduct outcome evaluations. However, programs present challenges regarding incomplete data collection, the lack of quality assurance systems, and the use of subjective criteria for determining program eligibility. Practices that could improve future research quality include tracking additional participant and facilitator data, implementing quality assurance systems, and conducting randomized controlled trials of prison programs. Some of these practices would require additional resources or would raise legal or ethical issues.

Chronic Absenteeism in Washington's K–12 Schools: What Schools Are Doing to Reduce Absenteeism

WSIPP receives funding from the legislature to conduct research on K–12 education topics. This report focuses on chronic absenteeism in Washington K–12 schools. A student is considered chronically absent when they miss 10% or more days in a school year. Chronic absenteeism is associated with poor academic and non-academic outcomes across all grades.

For this report, we interviewed staff working on attendance and reengagement efforts in eight out of nine Educational Service Districts (ESDs). We summarize their perspectives on why students are chronically absent, what schools are doing to improve attendance, and the challenges they face.

ESD staff reported that students miss school mostly because of illness or mental health issues. Often, students experience situations outside of their control that require them to stay home. Lack of belonging, falling behind in schoolwork, and changing schools are other common reasons.

We learned that schools are most commonly using data to inform attendance efforts, creating attendance teams with dedicated staff focused on attendance initiatives, using communication strategies to educate students and families about the importance of attendance, building relationships with students so they feel welcome at school, and sometimes implementing competitions and incentives to encourage better attendance.

Schools have limited staffing, sometimes prioritize other things besides attendance, struggle to collect and analyze data, and face shifting mindsets about attendance from students and families after the COVID-19 pandemic, all of which challenge their ability to reduce absenteeism.

This is the first report on chronic absenteeism. In June 2026, we will report on the evidence base for interventions on attendance on student outcomes.

The Impact of Cannabis Retail Availability on Cannabis and Mental Health Outcomes Among Medicaid Recipients in Washington State

In November 2012, Washington State voters passed Initiative 502 (I-502), which legalized limited possession, private use, and commercial sales of cannabis for adults. In this study, we explore the relationship between licensed cannabis retail availability in Washington State and healthcare outcomes related to cannabis use disorder (CUD) and mental health disorders, including depression, anxiety, bipolar, and psychotic disorders.

Using claims and encounter data on Medicaid enrollees aged 12-64, we find that residence near a cannabis retailer predicts higher rates of CUD, CUD-related hospitalization, and CUD-related inpatient SUD treatment. Furthermore, we find that living near a retailer predicts higher rates of co-occurring CUD and mental health disorder diagnoses. Last, we find that living near a retailer is associated with an increase in the probability of having a mental health disorder diagnosis following a CUD diagnosis. Evidence suggests that impacts are generally largest in neighborhoods with multiple active retailers nearby.

Assessing the Impact of Prison Visitation on Adults Confined in Washington State: Contact Visits, Prison Infractions, and Recidivism

During a contact visit, incarcerated individuals meet face-to-face with visitors in a designated area where limited physical contact is allowed. Although past research suggests that participation in contact visits is associated with improved outcomes (e.g., fewer infractions, lower recidivism), there is no published research on contact visits in Washington. We analyzed records from a comprehensive database of all contact visits in Washington prisons between 2008 and 2023 to answer three research questions: (1) Who gets visited? (2) Does visitation impact prison infractions? (3) Does visitation impact recidivism?

We found that about 48% of incarcerated individuals received at least one contact visit during their prison stay. The most powerful predictor of visitation is travel time. Individuals confined in facilities located a short drive from their county of conviction were much more likely to receive visits. We also found that visitation has a complex relationship with whether individuals violate prison rules (i.e., infractions). Visits cause a decrease in violent infractions (e.g., fighting) but an increase in trading infractions (e.g., sharing/loaning items). The risk of receiving a serious infraction dramatically declines during the weeks leading up to a contact visit, increases immediately after the visit, then gradually returns to baseline levels within a few weeks. Finally, we found no evidence that visitation impacts recidivism.

State Policies Supporting the Implementation of Small Modular Reactors

The 2025 Legislature directed WSIPP to review the policies and funding mechanisms adopted by other states to support the implementation of small modular reactors (SMRs). Small modular reactors are nuclear reactors with a generating capacity of approximately 300 megawatts or less, designed with modular technology that enables factory fabrication.

We identified 79 policies in 35 states supporting the implementation of SMRs. We categorized each policy based on the stage of the site development process it targets, and on the type of activity it involves. Information gathering activities include studies on SMR feasibility, siting, inputs, and regulatory reforms. Coordination efforts include multi-state coalitions and collaboration between state agencies to facilitate SMR construction. Regulatory reforms include rules regarding permitting and integration with electricity markets to expedite approval. Financial support includes cost recovery, tax preferences, competitive grants and loans, and direct subsidies.

These policies typically leverage state resources, including the existing nuclear industry and federal research laboratories. They also address state-specific challenges, including utility structures, permitting requirements, and environmental regulations.

Our analysis includes policies that explicitly affect advanced nuclear reactors. As a result, policies that support energy infrastructure more broadly are not included in our analysis.

Estimating Potential Cost Savings from Paying Parental Caregivers of Children with Developmental Disabilities: Preliminary Report

The 2025 Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy to estimate the potential cost savings to the state if a policy were adopted allowing parents or other legally responsible individuals to become paid caregivers to their minor children with intellectual or developmental disability (I/DD).

In this preliminary report, we provide background on services and policy proposals in Washington. Additionally, we summarize our plans to quantify potential cost savings under a paid parental caregiver policy. Our final report, due November 2026, will present estimates of potential cost savings that could result from a paid parental caregivers policy. Specifically, we will examine the potential for a change in state costs based on families’ use of public benefits, children’s healthcare costs, or children’s out-of-home placements.

Commercial Aviation in Washington: A Review of Forecasts, Policies, and Technologies

The Puget Sound area has seen significant growth in demand for air travel, putting pressure on current facilities. Forecasts from a recent study predict a substantial expected gap in service for the area. In addition, commercial aviation has a significant impact on the environment. The 2024 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to examine the passenger activity and air cargo forecasts in the Puget Sound Regional Council’s study, conduct a review of strategies aimed at reducing air travel demand, and investigate technologies addressing the environmental impacts of air travel.

In our assessment of the forecasts, we find evidence to suggest that both the passenger activity and the air cargo forecast overestimate the actual aviation activity in the Puget Sound area.

In our review of strategies to combat demand for air travel, we find the literature on strategies intended to reduce demand is sparse and often methodologically fraught. The policy changes that may lead to a reduction in demand typically do so by increasing the cost of air travel or limiting the supply. High-speed rail has also been shown to decrease demand in some countries as a substitute for air travel, though none of the papers study this in a U.S. context.

In the review of technologies to combat the environmental impact of air travel, we detail several technologies that have the potential to make air travel less impactful on the environment, including innovative airplane designs, electrification of key pieces in the commercial aviation system, and sustainable aviation fuels. We also discuss challenges to note when considering the feasibility of implementing these technologies in Washington State.

Housing Vouchers Upon Release from DOC Custody: Relationship to Homelessness, Public Benefits, Employment, and Recidivism

In Washington, people leaving custody after a period of prison confinement may be eligible for rental housing vouchers. The goal of providing housing vouchers is to increase post-incarceration housing stability, which may help reduce recidivism and increase employment. The Washington State Legislature has authorized housing vouchers through several legislative efforts, which have been implemented at different times and vary in eligibility criteria. Generally, people leaving the custody of the Department of Corrections may be eligible for $700 per month in housing vouchers for up to six months.

In 2023, the Washington State Legislature directed the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (WSIPP) to conduct a study of the impact of vouchers after changes were made to the program. Findings suggested that housing vouchers were associated with improvements in several outcomes. People who received housing vouchers were less likely to experience homelessness, more likely to find employment and earn more money from that employment, and less likely to be rearrested. Longer periods of vouchered housing were associated with larger benefits, and benefits were strongest while someone was actively receiving vouchers. People who received housing vouchers were also more likely to receive other public benefits. A benefit-cost analysis indicated that the benefits of voucher programs outweighed the costs of the program. Each dollar spent on vouchers returned about $1.12 in benefits. These findings should be understood as descriptive and not interpreted as causal.