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Washington State Institute for Public Policy
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Stepping Stones to Literacy

Pre-K to 12 Education
Benefit-cost methods last updated December 2024.  Literature review updated March 2021.
Stepping Stones to Literacy (SSL) is a supplemental curriculum designed to improve the early literacy of preschoolers and kindergarteners who are at risk of having reading difficulties. Tutoring is provided to children during the school day by a tutor or other paraprofessional for 10-20 minutes each day, five days per week for over ten weeks Children in the control group received the standard supplemental education provided by their school.
 
ALL
BENEFIT-COST
META-ANALYSIS
CITATIONS
For an overview of WSIPP's Benefit-Cost Model, please see this guide. The estimates shown are present value, life cycle benefits and costs. All dollars are expressed in the base year chosen for this analysis (2023).  The chance the benefits exceed the costs are derived from a Monte Carlo risk analysis. The details on this, as well as the economic discount rates and other relevant parameters are described in our Technical Documentation.
Benefit-Cost Summary Statistics Per Participant
Benefits to:
Taxpayers $2,845 Benefits minus costs $12,989
Participants $6,702 Benefit to cost ratio $217.34
Others $3,532 Chance the program will produce
Indirect ($30) benefits greater than the costs 64%
Total benefits $13,050
Net program cost ($60)
Benefits minus cost $12,989

Meta-analysis is a statistical method to combine the results from separate studies on a program, policy, or topic to estimate its effect on an outcome. WSIPP systematically evaluates all credible evaluations we can locate on each topic. The outcomes measured are the program impacts measured in the research literature (for example, impacts on crime or educational attainment). Treatment N represents the total number of individuals or units in the treatment group across the included studies.

An effect size (ES) is a standard metric that summarizes the degree to which a program or policy affects a measured outcome. If the effect size is positive, the outcome increases. If the effect size is negative, the outcome decreases. See Estimating Program Effects Using Effect Sizes for additional information on how we estimate effect sizes.

The effect size may be adjusted from the unadjusted effect size estimated in the meta-analysis. Historically, WSIPP adjusted effect sizes to some programs based on the methodological characteristics of the study. For programs reviewed in 2024 or later, we do not make additional adjustments, and we use the unadjusted effect size whenever we run a benefit-cost analysis.

Research shows the magnitude of effects may change over time. For those effect sizes, we estimate outcome-based adjustments, which we apply between the first time ES is estimated and the second time ES is estimated. More details about these adjustments can be found in our Technical Documentation.

Meta-Analysis of Program Effects
Outcomes measured Treatment age No. of effect sizes Treatment N Effect sizes (ES) and standard errors (SE) used in the benefit-cost analysis Unadjusted effect size (random effects model)
First time ES is estimated Second time ES is estimated
ES SE Age ES SE Age ES p-value
Test scores
Standardized, validated tests of academic achievement.
5 3 106 0.198 0.164 5 0.061 0.180 17 0.507 0.008
1In addition to the outcomes measured in the meta-analysis table, WSIPP measures benefits and costs estimated from other outcomes associated with those reported in the evaluation literature. For example, empirical research demonstrates that high school graduation leads to reduced crime. These associated measures provide a more complete picture of the detailed costs and benefits of the program.

2“Others” includes benefits to people other than taxpayers and participants. Depending on the program, it could include reductions in crime victimization, the economic benefits from a more educated workforce, and the benefits from employer-paid health insurance.

3“Indirect benefits” includes estimates of the net changes in the value of a statistical life and net changes in the deadweight costs of taxation.
Detailed Monetary Benefit Estimates Per Participant
Affected outcome: Resulting benefits:1 Benefits accrue to:
Taxpayers Participants Others2 Indirect3 Total
Test scores Labor market earnings associated with test scores $2,845 $6,702 $3,532 $0 $13,080
Program cost Adjustment for deadweight cost of program $0 $0 $0 ($30) ($30)
Totals $2,845 $6,702 $3,532 ($30) $13,050
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Detailed Annual Cost Estimates Per Participant
Annual cost Year dollars Summary
Program costs $52 2020 Present value of net program costs (in 2023 dollars) ($60)
Comparison costs $0 2020 Cost range (+ or -) 30%
Cost of materials: The Stepping Stones program teacher manual and lesson flipbook costs $260.95 per set. Since the tutor would be able to use the manual for all children, we divided the cost of the manual by the tutor-student ratio found in the studies. This is an upper bound for the cost of the program since this estimation strategy implicitly assumes that teachers purchase new materials for each new cohort of students. Instructor costs (e.g., tutor salary and benefits) are excluded because children in the control condition also receive some form of supplemental instruction. We assume that the cost of the program is zero because the school already has the materials used in the control condition. This is lower bound for the cost of the control condition since the school may also need to purchase materials for their current supplemental reading program.
The figures shown are estimates of the costs to implement programs in Washington. The comparison group costs reflect either no treatment or treatment as usual, depending on how effect sizes were calculated in the meta-analysis. The cost range reported above reflects potential variation or uncertainty in the cost estimate; more detail can be found in our Technical Documentation.
Benefits Minus Costs
Benefits by Perspective
Taxpayer Benefits by Source of Value
Benefits Minus Costs Over Time (Cumulative Discounted Dollars)
The graph above illustrates the estimated cumulative net benefits per-participant for the first fifty years beyond the initial investment in the program. We present these cash flows in discounted dollars. If the dollars are negative (bars below $0 line), the cumulative benefits do not outweigh the cost of the program up to that point in time. The program breaks even when the dollars reach $0. At this point, the total benefits to participants, taxpayers, and others, are equal to the cost of the program. If the dollars are above $0, the benefits of the program exceed the initial investment.

Citations Used in the Meta-Analysis

Nelson, J.R., Sanders, E.A., & Gonzalez, J. (2009). The efficacy of supplemental early literacy instruction by community-based tutors for preschoolers enrolled in Head Start. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 3(1), 1-25.

Nelson, R., Benner, G., & Gonzalez, J. (2005) An investigation of the effects of a prereading intervention on the early literacy skills of children at risk of emotional disturbance and reading problems. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 13(1), 3-12

Nelson, J.R., Stage, S.A., Epstein, M.H., & Pierce, C.D. (2005). Effects of a prereading intervention on the literacy and social skills of children. Exceptional Children, 72(1), 29-45.