ALL |
META-ANALYSIS |
CITATIONS |
|
Benefit-Cost Summary Statistics Per Participant | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benefits to: | ||||||
Taxpayers | $11,101 | Benefits minus costs | $46,968 | |||
Participants | $22,676 | Benefit to cost ratio | $182.07 | |||
Others | $12,803 | Chance the program will produce | ||||
Indirect | $647 | benefits greater than the costs | 97% | |||
Total benefits | $47,227 | |||||
Net program cost | ($259) | |||||
Benefits minus cost | $46,968 | |||||
Meta-Analysis of Program Effects | ||||||||||||
Outcomes measured | Treatment age | No. of effect sizes | Treatment N | Effect sizes (ES) and standard errors (SE) used in the benefit-cost analysis | Unadjusted effect size (random effects model) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First time ES is estimated | Second time ES is estimated | |||||||||||
ES | SE | Age | ES | SE | Age | ES | p-value | |||||
K-12 grade repetition Repeating a grade. This is sometimes called "grade retention." |
7 | 1 | 5754 | -0.297 | 0.160 | 12 | -0.297 | 0.160 | 12 | -0.297 | 0.063 | |
Suspensions/expulsions^ In-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, or expulsions from school |
7 | 4 | 29275 | -0.297 | 0.104 | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -0.297 | 0.004 | |
Test scores Standardized, validated tests of academic achievement. |
7 | 5 | 37558 | 0.274 | 0.089 | 11 | 0.198 | 0.098 | 17 | 0.274 | 0.002 | |
Social and emotional development^ A broad range of skills relevant to self, emotion, and relationships. These skills are typically measured through validated assessments that measure self-awareness, social competence, and self-control. |
7 | 1 | 416 | 0.044 | 0.192 | 8 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0.044 | 0.819 | |
Office discipline referrals^ Referrals of a student to an administrative office for disciplinary reasons. |
7 | 4 | 31801 | -0.450 | 0.198 | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -0.450 | 0.023 | |
School attendance^ Number or percentage of school days present in a given enrollment period. |
7 | 5 | 37558 | 0.150 | 0.077 | 10 | n/a | n/a | n/a | 0.150 | 0.052 | |
Alcohol use before end of middle school Any use of alcohol by the end of middle school, typically by age 13. |
7 | 2 | 1169 | -0.423 | 0.072 | 11 | -0.423 | 0.072 | 11 | -0.423 | 0.001 | |
Cannabis use before end of middle school Any use of cannabis by the end of middle school, typically by age 13. |
7 | 1 | 193 | -0.348 | 0.162 | 13 | -0.348 | 0.162 | 13 | -0.348 | 0.032 | |
Smoking before end of middle school Any smoking of tobacco by the end of middle school, typically by age 13. |
7 | 2 | 1169 | -0.354 | 0.098 | 11 | -0.354 | 0.098 | 11 | -0.354 | 0.001 | |
Illicit drug use before end of middle school Any use of illicit drugs by the end of middle school, typically by age 13. When possible, we exclude cannabis/marijuana use disorder from this outcome. |
7 | 1 | 976 | -0.771 | 0.212 | 11 | -0.771 | 0.212 | 11 | -0.771 | 0.001 | |
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms Clinical diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or symptoms measured on a validated scale. |
7 | 1 | 416 | -0.057 | 0.070 | 8 | 0.000 | 0.141 | 9 | -0.057 | 0.415 | |
Anxiety disorder Clinical diagnosis of an anxiety disorder (e.g., general anxiety, panic, social anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder) or symptoms measured on a validated scale. |
7 | 1 | 585 | -0.193 | 0.059 | 13 | -0.076 | 0.060 | 14 | -0.193 | 0.001 | |
Major depressive disorder Clinical diagnosis of major depression or symptoms measured on a validated scale. |
7 | 1 | 585 | -0.140 | 0.059 | 13 | 0.000 | 0.310 | 15 | -0.140 | 0.017 | |
Externalizing behavior symptoms Symptoms of externalizing behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, or disruptive behavior) measured on a validated scale. |
7 | 3 | 6425 | -0.315 | 0.169 | 12 | -0.173 | 0.126 | 15 | -0.315 | 0.063 | |
Internalizing symptoms Symptoms of internalizing behavior (e.g., sadness, anxiety, or withdrawal) measured on a validated scale. |
7 | 1 | 4864 | 0.024 | 0.020 | 12 | 0.024 | 0.020 | 14 | 0.024 | 0.227 | |
Initiation of sexual activity^ Self-reported sexual intercourse. |
7 | 1 | 976 | -1.039 | 0.192 | 11 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -1.039 | 0.001 | |
Body mass index (BMI)^ A measure of relative weight for height, measured by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by their height in meters, squared. |
7 | 1 | 193 | -0.220 | 0.105 | 13 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -0.220 | 0.037 | Click to expand | Click to collapse |
Detailed Monetary Benefit Estimates Per Participant | ||||||
Affected outcome: | Resulting benefits:1 | Benefits accrue to: | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Taxpayers | Participants | Others2 | Indirect3 | Total |
||
Test scores | Labor market earnings associated with test scores | $9,548 | $22,493 | $11,855 | $0 | $43,896 |
K-12 grade repetition | K-12 grade repetition | $347 | $0 | $0 | $174 | $521 |
Cannabis use before end of middle school | Criminal justice system | $131 | $0 | $286 | $65 | $482 |
Alcohol use before end of middle school | Property loss associated with alcohol abuse or dependence | $0 | $4 | $7 | $0 | $11 |
Major depressive disorder | Mortality associated with depression | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 | $0 |
Externalizing behavior symptoms | K-12 special education | $441 | $0 | $0 | $220 | $661 |
Health care associated with externalizing behavior symptoms | $650 | $184 | $671 | $325 | $1,829 | |
Internalizing symptoms | Health care associated with internalizing symptoms | ($16) | ($4) | ($16) | ($8) | ($44) |
Program cost | Adjustment for deadweight cost of program | $0 | $0 | $0 | ($130) | ($130) |
Totals | $11,101 | $22,676 | $12,803 | $647 | $47,227 | |
Detailed Annual Cost Estimates Per Participant | ||||
Annual cost | Year dollars | Summary | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Program costs | $70 | 2024 | Present value of net program costs (in 2023 dollars) | ($259) |
Comparison costs | $0 | 2024 | Cost range (+ or -) | 30% |
Benefits Minus Costs |
Benefits by Perspective |
Taxpayer Benefits by Source of Value |
Benefits Minus Costs Over Time (Cumulative Discounted Dollars) |
The graph above illustrates the estimated cumulative net benefits per-participant for the first fifty years beyond the initial investment in the program. We present these cash flows in discounted dollars. If the dollars are negative (bars below $0 line), the cumulative benefits do not outweigh the cost of the program up to that point in time. The program breaks even when the dollars reach $0. At this point, the total benefits to participants, taxpayers, and others, are equal to the cost of the program. If the dollars are above $0, the benefits of the program exceed the initial investment. |
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