ALL |
META-ANALYSIS |
CITATIONS |
|
Benefit-Cost Summary Statistics Per Participant | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Benefits to: | ||||||
Taxpayers | $2,839 | Benefits minus costs | $7,997 | |||
Participants | $2,926 | Benefit to cost ratio | $13.26 | |||
Others | $2,899 | Chance the program will produce | ||||
Indirect | ($15) | benefits greater than the costs | 74 % | |||
Total benefits | $8,649 | |||||
Net program cost | ($652) | |||||
Benefits minus cost | $7,997 | |||||
Meta-Analysis of Program Effects | ||||||||||||
Outcomes measured | Treatment age | No. of effect sizes | Treatment N | Adjusted effect sizes(ES) and standard errors(SE) used in the benefit - cost analysis | Unadjusted effect size (random effects model) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
First time ES is estimated | Second time ES is estimated | |||||||||||
ES | SE | Age | ES | SE | Age | ES | p-value | |||||
Test scores Standardized, validated tests of academic achievement. |
10 | 3 | 118261 | 0.036 | 0.054 | 12 | 0.028 | 0.059 | 17 | 0.036 | 0.507 | |
Externalizing behavior symptoms Symptoms of externalizing behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, or disruptive behavior) measured on a validated scale. |
10 | 1 | 7539 | -0.740 | 0.343 | 13 | -0.407 | 0.271 | 16 | -0.740 | 0.031 | |
Office discipline referrals^ Referrals of a student to an administrative office for disciplinary reasons. |
10 | 1 | 7539 | -0.252 | 0.092 | 13 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -0.252 | 0.006 | |
Suspensions/expulsions^ In-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, or expulsions from school |
10 | 2 | 17445 | -0.010 | 0.100 | 11 | n/a | n/a | n/a | -0.010 | 0.924 |
Detailed Monetary Benefit Estimates Per Participant | ||||||
Affected outcome: | Resulting benefits:1 | Benefits accrue to: | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Taxpayers | Participants | Others2 | Indirect3 | Total |
||
Test scores | Labor market earnings associated with test scores | $1,108 | $2,602 | $1,373 | ($554) | $4,529 |
Externalizing behavior symptoms | Criminal justice system | $144 | $0 | $346 | $72 | $561 |
K-12 special education | $443 | $0 | $0 | $222 | $665 | |
Health care associated with externalizing behavior symptoms | $1,144 | $323 | $1,181 | $572 | $3,220 | |
Program cost | Adjustment for deadweight cost of program | $0 | $0 | $0 | ($326) | ($326) |
Totals | $2,839 | $2,926 | $2,899 | ($15) | $8,649 | |
Detailed Annual Cost Estimates Per Participant | ||||
Annual cost | Year dollars | Summary | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Program costs | $207 | 2013 | Present value of net program costs (in 2018 dollars) | ($652) |
Comparison costs | $0 | 2013 | Cost range (+ or -) | 10 % |
Benefits Minus Costs |
Benefits by Perspective |
Taxpayer Benefits by Source of Value |
Benefits Minus Costs Over Time (Cumulative Discounted Dollars) |
The graph above illustrates the estimated cumulative net benefits per-participant for the first fifty years beyond the initial investment in the program. We present these cash flows in discounted dollars. If the dollars are negative (bars below $0 line), the cumulative benefits do not outweigh the cost of the program up to that point in time. The program breaks even when the dollars reach $0. At this point, the total benefits to participants, taxpayers, and others, are equal to the cost of the program. If the dollars are above $0, the benefits of the program exceed the initial investment. |
Bradshaw, C.P., Mitchell, M.M., & Leaf, P.J. (2010). Examining the effects of Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on student outcomes: Results from a randomized controlled effectiveness trial in elementary schools. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 12(3), 133-148.
Bradshaw, C.P., Waasdorp, T.E., & Leaf, P.J. (2012). Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports on child behavior problems. Pediatrics, 130(5), 1136-45.
Gage, N.A., Sugai, G., Lewis, T.J., & Brzozowy, S. (2015). Academic achievement and School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 25(4), 199-209.
Sørlie, M.A., & Ogden, T. (2015). School-Wide Positive Behavior Support-Norway: Impacts on problem behavior and classroom climate. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 3(3), 202-217.
Ward, B., & Gersten, R. (2013). A randomized evaluation of the Safe and Civil Schools model for Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports at elementary schools in a large urban school district. School Psychology Review, 42(3), 317-333.