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Buprenorphine (or buprenorphine/naloxone) maintenance treatment for opioid use disorder

Substance Use Disorders: Medication-assisted Treatment
Benefit-cost methods last updated December 2024.  Literature review updated December 2016.
Buprenorphine/buprenorphine/naloxone is an opiate substitution treatment for opioid dependence. It is a daily medication generally provided in addition to counseling therapies. Buprenorphine/buprenorphine/naloxone is a partial agonist that suppresses withdrawal symptoms and blocks the effects of opioids. Two versions of buprenorphine are used in the treatment of opioid dependence. Subutex consists of buprenorphine only while Suboxone is a version of buprenorphine that combines buprenorphine and naloxone. The addition of naloxone reduces the probability of overdose and reduces misuse by producing severe withdrawal effects if taken any way except sublingually. Suboxone is generally given during the maintenance phase and many clinics will only provide take-home doses of Suboxone. Buprenorphine and buprenorphine/naloxone are alternatives to methadone treatments and, unlike methadone, can be prescribed in office-based settings by physicians that have completed a special training. We reviewed studies that evaluated the effectiveness of buprenorphine maintenance therapy. We excluded studies with treatment dosages below current guidance (< 8 mg/day).
 
ALL
BENEFIT-COST
META-ANALYSIS
CITATIONS
For an overview of WSIPP's Benefit-Cost Model, please see this guide. The estimates shown are present value, life cycle benefits and costs. All dollars are expressed in the base year chosen for this analysis (2023).  The chance the benefits exceed the costs are derived from a Monte Carlo risk analysis. The details on this, as well as the economic discount rates and other relevant parameters are described in our Technical Documentation.
Benefit-Cost Summary Statistics Per Participant
Benefits to:
Taxpayers $2,176 Benefits minus costs $4,951
Participants $2,800 Benefit to cost ratio $1.88
Others $1,041 Chance the program will produce
Indirect $4,576 benefits greater than the costs 81%
Total benefits $10,593
Net program cost ($5,642)
Benefits minus cost $4,951

^WSIPP’s benefit-cost model does not monetize this outcome.

^^WSIPP does not include this outcome when conducting benefit-cost analysis for this program.

Meta-analysis is a statistical method to combine the results from separate studies on a program, policy, or topic to estimate its effect on an outcome. WSIPP systematically evaluates all credible evaluations we can locate on each topic. The outcomes measured are the program impacts measured in the research literature (for example, impacts on crime or educational attainment). Treatment N represents the total number of individuals or units in the treatment group across the included studies.

An effect size (ES) is a standard metric that summarizes the degree to which a program or policy affects a measured outcome. If the effect size is positive, the outcome increases. If the effect size is negative, the outcome decreases. See Estimating Program Effects Using Effect Sizes for additional information on how we estimate effect sizes.

The effect size may be adjusted from the unadjusted effect size estimated in the meta-analysis. Historically, WSIPP adjusted effect sizes to some programs based on the methodological characteristics of the study. For programs reviewed in 2024 or later, we do not make additional adjustments, and we use the unadjusted effect size whenever we run a benefit-cost analysis.

Research shows the magnitude of effects may change over time. For those effect sizes, we estimate outcome-based adjustments, which we apply between the first time ES is estimated and the second time ES is estimated. More details about these adjustments can be found in our Technical Documentation.

Meta-Analysis of Program Effects
Outcomes measured Treatment age No. of effect sizes Treatment N Effect sizes (ES) and standard errors (SE) used in the benefit-cost analysis Unadjusted effect size (random effects model)
First time ES is estimated Second time ES is estimated
ES SE Age ES SE Age ES p-value
Opioid use disorder
Clinical diagnosis of opioid use disorder or symptoms on a validated scale.
37 9 793 -0.941 0.181 37 0.000 0.000 38 -0.941 0.001
Emergency department visits^^
Whether someone visited the emergency department, or the number of times they visited the emergency department.
37 1 46 -0.026 0.263 37 n/a n/a n/a -0.026 0.920
Psychiatric symptoms^
Mental health symptoms (such as symptoms of psychosis) in individuals with serious mental illness, measured on a validated scale.
 37 1 51 -0.156 0.201 37 n/a n/a n/a -0.156 0.437
1In addition to the outcomes measured in the meta-analysis table, WSIPP measures benefits and costs estimated from other outcomes associated with those reported in the evaluation literature. For example, empirical research demonstrates that high school graduation leads to reduced crime. These associated measures provide a more complete picture of the detailed costs and benefits of the program.

2“Others” includes benefits to people other than taxpayers and participants. Depending on the program, it could include reductions in crime victimization, the economic benefits from a more educated workforce, and the benefits from employer-paid health insurance.

3“Indirect benefits” includes estimates of the net changes in the value of a statistical life and net changes in the deadweight costs of taxation.
Detailed Monetary Benefit Estimates Per Participant
Affected outcome: Resulting benefits:1 Benefits accrue to:
Taxpayers Participants Others2 Indirect3 Total
Opioid use disorder Criminal justice system $0 $0 $1 $0 $1
Labor market earnings associated with opioid drug abuse or dependence $785 $1,849 $0 $0 $2,635
Health care associated with opioid drug abuse or dependence $1,048 $143 $1,040 $524 $2,754
Mortality associated with opioids $343 $808 $0 $6,873 $8,025
Program cost Adjustment for deadweight cost of program $0 $0 $0 ($2,821) ($2,821)
Totals $2,176 $2,800 $1,041 $4,576 $10,593
Click here to see populations selected
Detailed Annual Cost Estimates Per Participant
Annual cost Year dollars Summary
Program costs $4,431 2012 Present value of net program costs (in 2023 dollars) ($5,642)
Comparison costs $0 2012 Cost range (+ or -) 30%
We estimated the per-participant costs of providing buprenorphine/buprenorphine/naloxone in addition to standard substance abuse treatment for 12 months. Costs reflect the average of costs reported in numerous cost-effectiveness studies (Polsky et al., 2010; Rosenheck and Kosten, 2001; Schackman et al., 2012). Costs included vary by study but generally include costs of medication, dispensing, toxicology screens, and when available, costs of medical care related to methadone treatment, equipment, administration, and clinic space. The figures shown are estimates of the costs to implement programs in Washington. Comparison group participants may have recieved counseling and other services. Polsky, D., Glick, H.A., Yang, J., Subramaniam, G.A., Poole, S.A., & Woody, G.E. (2010). Cost-effectiveness of extended buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for opioid-dependent youth: data from a randomized trial. Addiction, 105(9), 1616-1624. Rosenheck, R., & Kosten, T. (2001). Buprenorphine for opiate addiction: potential economic impact. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 63(3), 253-262. Schackman, B.R., Leff, J.A., Moore, B.A., Moore, B.A., & Fiellin, D.A. (2012). Cost-effectiveness of long-term outpatient buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for opioid dependence in primary care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 27(6), 669-676. Polsky, D., Glick, H.A., Yang, J., Subramaniam, G.A., Poole, S.A., & Woody, G.E. (2010). Cost-effectiveness of extended buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for opioid-dependent youth: data from a randomized trial. Addiction, 105(9), 1616-1624. Rosenheck, R., & Kosten, T. (2001). Buprenorphine for opiate addiction: potential economic impact. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 63(3), 253-262. Schackman, B.R., Leff, J.A., Moore, B.A., Moore, B.A., & Fiellin, D.A. (2012). Cost-effectiveness of long-term outpatient buprenorphine-naloxone treatment for opioid dependence in primary care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 27(6), 669-676.
The figures shown are estimates of the costs to implement programs in Washington. The comparison group costs reflect either no treatment or treatment as usual, depending on how effect sizes were calculated in the meta-analysis. The cost range reported above reflects potential variation or uncertainty in the cost estimate; more detail can be found in our Technical Documentation.
Benefits Minus Costs
Benefits by Perspective
Taxpayer Benefits by Source of Value
Benefits Minus Costs Over Time (Cumulative Discounted Dollars)
The graph above illustrates the estimated cumulative net benefits per-participant for the first fifty years beyond the initial investment in the program. We present these cash flows in discounted dollars. If the dollars are negative (bars below $0 line), the cumulative benefits do not outweigh the cost of the program up to that point in time. The program breaks even when the dollars reach $0. At this point, the total benefits to participants, taxpayers, and others, are equal to the cost of the program. If the dollars are above $0, the benefits of the program exceed the initial investment.

Citations Used in the Meta-Analysis

Cropsey, K.L., Lane, P.S., Hale, G.J., Jackson, D.O., Clark, C.B., Ingersoll, K.S., Islam, M.A., Stitzer, M.L. (2011). Results of a pilot randomized controlled trial of buprenorphine for opioid dependent women in the criminal justice system. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 119(3), 172-178.

Fudala, P.J., Bridge, T.P., Herbert, S., Williford, W.O., Chiang, C.N., Jones, K., . . . Tusel, D. (2003). Office-based treatment of opiate addiction with a sublingual-tablet formulation of buprenorphine and naloxone. The New England Journal of Medicine, 349(10), 949-958.

Kakko, J., Svanborg, K.D., Kreek, M.J., & Heilig, M. (2003). 1-year retention and social function after buprenorphine-assisted relapse prevention treatment for heroin dependence in Sweden: A randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet, 361(9358), 662-668.

Krook, A.L., Brørs, O., Dahlberg, J., Grouff, K., Magnus, P., Røysamb, E., & Waal, H. (2002). A placebo-controlled study of high dose buprenorphine in opiate dependents waiting for medication-assisted rehabilitation in Oslo, Norway. Addiction, 97(5), 533-542.

Liebschutz, J.M., Crooks, D., Herman, D., Anderson, B., Tsui, J., Meshesha, L.Z., Dossabhoy, S., Stein, M. (2014). Buprenorphine treatment for hospitalized, opioid-dependent patients: a randomized clinical trial. Jama Internal Medicine, 174(8), 1369-76.

Ling, W., Charuvastra, C., Collins, J.F., Batki, S., Brown, L.S., Kintaudi, P., . . . Segal, D. (1998). Buprenorphine maintenance treatment of opiate dependence: A multicenter, randomized clinical trial. Addiction, 93(4), 475.

Lucas, G. M., Chaudhry, A., Hsu, J., Woodson, T., Lau, B., Olsen, Y., Keruly, J. C., ... Moore, R. D. (2010). Clinic-based treatment of opioid-dependent HIV-infected patients versus referral to an opioid treatment program: A randomized trial. Annals of Internal Medicine, 152, 11, 704-711.

Rosenthal, R.N., Ling, W., Casadonte, P., Vocci, F., Bailey, G.L., Kampman, K., ... & Beebe, K.L. (2013). Buprenorphine implants for treatment of opioid dependence: Randomized comparison to placebo and sublingual buprenorphine/naloxone. Addiction, 108(12), 2141-2149.